2014–2015

Art

RESOURCE GUIDE

Innovations in Art

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Introduction

This resource guide discusses eighteen works of art from throughout time and across the globe. It includes objects as diverse as an over life-size bronze figurative sculpture, a page from one of Leonardo da Vinci’s sketchbooks, an iron bridge, and the first collage in Western art. What connects them all is a focus on the idea of innovation.

When we think of innovation, we tend to focus on recent technological advancements, such as the development of computers, solar panels, and cellular telephones. However, innovation has been key to human development and progress throughout history, and many of these innovations have influenced art. The development of new materials, such as concrete, oil paints, and paper, has transformed art making, as have new techniques, such as the use of the arch, the development of photography, and the application of silkscreen printing to canvas. All of these and more will be explored in this guide.

Section I of the guide provides background information on the history of art, including a brief overview of important developments from the ancient period to the present. This introduction focuses on Western art, but also touches on developments in other parts of the world. Included in this section is an overview of the specific terminology used in the fields of art and art history.

The four sections that follow focus on a series of innovative works of art seen in their historical contexts. Section II looks at the ancient world, specifically considering Egyptian, Greek, and Roman examples. Section III covers innovations of the Renaissance. Works from both Northern Europe and Italy are investigated, as is an example of Islamic art. Section IV focuses on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, through which we will survey works that evolved out of the inventions of the Industrial Revolution, as well as a silk robe from Imperial China. Finally, Section V looks at innovations of the twentieth century. We begin with an early skyscraper example and end with a recent digital video project. Through them all, we will see the important and fascinating ways in which innovations—artistic, technological, and conceptual—have had an impact on the history of art.

NOTE TO STUDENTS: Students should be aware that dates in art history, especially early dates, frequently vary according to source and are often highly contested. The dates presented in this resource guide are not necessarily definitive, but are those dates provided by the museums that house the artworks or the sources consulted by the author in writing this guide.

SECTION I

Art Fundamentals

Introduction to Art History

Art history is an academic discipline dedicated to the reconstruction of the social, cultural, and economic contexts in which an artwork was created. The basic goal of this work is to arrive at an understanding of art and its meaning in its historical moment, taking into consideration the formal qualities of a work of art, the function of a work of art in its original context, the goals and intentions of the artist and the patron of the work of art, the social position and perspectives of the audience in the work’s original time and place, and many other related questions. Art history is closely related to other disciplines such as anthropology, history, and sociology. In addition, art history sometimes overlaps with the fields of aesthetics, or the philosophical inquiry into the nature and expression of beauty; and art criticism, or the explanation of current art events to the general public via the press.

This brief introduction to the discipline of art history will help you understand the kinds of questions that one may ask in order to arrive at a deeper understanding of a work of art. We will put these ideas into practice as we proceed through case studies related to the specific topic of the resource guide.

Methods and Inquiries of Art History

Art historians today generally define “art” very broadly and include in their inquiries almost any kind of visual material that is created by people and invested with special meaning and/or valued for its aesthetic appeal. In the past, art historians often limited their focus to what was called “fine art,” which generally included paintings, prints, drawings, sculpture, and architecture, usually produced specifically for appreciation by an audience who also understood these objects as works of art. Today we define art much more broadly, also taking into consideration objects that in the past were dismissed as “craft”: textiles, pottery, and body art such as tattoos, for example. Art historians also consider objects that might not be considered art by their intended audience, including mass-produced posters and advertisements and even the design of ordinary household items like telephones, forks, and the living room sofa.

Art historians acknowledge that the meaning of a work of art can shift over time, and that an artwork may be perceived differently by viewers who approach it from different perspectives. To give one hypothetical example, Michelangelo’s paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel would have certainly been significant in different ways in the eyes of 1) the Pope, who commissioned the work and who had sophisticated theological knowledge and nearly exclusive access to this private space within the Vatican and 2) a worker who was charged with cleaning the floors of the chapel and whose level of literacy was probably quite low. Differences such as social status, education, physical access to a work of art, religious background, race, and gender have an impact on the construction of the meaning of a work of art. Similarly, the paintings’ meaning to a twenty-first-century Protestant, Muslim, or atheist is certainly different from the meaning they had for a practicing Catholic in the sixteenth century, even though the works may be equally admired for their aesthetic value by all of these viewers. In other words, the meaning of a work of art is not fixed; it is sometimes open to multiple interpretations taking into consideration factors such as historical context.

THE NATURE OF ART HISTORICAL INQUIRY

Art historians generally analyze works of art in two ways that are distinct from one another, but also interrelated. These two modes of analysis are called formal analysis and contextual analysis. Formal analysis focuses on the visual qualities of the work of art itself. A basic assumption of formal analysis is that the artist makes decisions related to the visual aspects of the artwork that can reveal to us something about its meaning. From this point of view, aspects of meaning are intrinsic to the work of art. Terms associated with the formal qualities of works of art, or the “elements of art,” are discussed in detail a bit later in this section of the guide. Formal analysis requires excellent skills in observation and description. Beginning our study of an artwork with formal analysis keeps the focus on the object itself, which to the art historian is always primary.

Contextual analysis involves looking outside of the work of art in order to determine its meaning. This involves examining not only the context in which the work was created, but also later contexts in which the work was and continues to be consumed. Contextual analysis focuses on the cultural, social, religious, and economic context in which the work was produced. Art historians may examine issues of patronage, viewer access to the work, the physical location of the work in its original context, the cost of the work of art, the subject matter in relation to other artworks of the time period, and so on.

Art history often emphasizes a chronological development with the assumption that within one cultural setting the work of one generation of artists will have an impact on following generations. Art historians often use comparative study. For example, by contrasting a Gothic with a Renaissance artwork, we can understand more clearly the unique features of each and the series of stylistic changes that led from one to the other. Then, we can seek to relate these changes to historical context. Art history provides information and insights that add background to the meaning and significance of the works of art we study. As we place these works of art in their cultural and historical context, they are connected to the long history of events that has led up to our present culture.

SOURCES, DOCUMENTS, AND THE WORK OF ART HISTORIANS

Art historians often begin their analysis with a close examination of a work of art. Direct examination of the work of art is ideal because much is lost when we look at a reproduction rather than an original work of art. In the case of sculpture, it is often difficult to get a proper sense of the scale and the three-dimensional qualities of a piece from a photograph. We lose the texture and some of the rich colors when we experience paintings in reproduction. Even photographs can appear flatter, lacking their subtle transitions from light to dark when seen reproduced in books. It is quite common, though, for art historians to settle for studying from reproductions due to practical constraints. In some cases, works of art might be damaged or even lost over time, and so art historians rely on earlier descriptions to aid in their formal and contextual analysis. In addition to examining the work of art in question, art historians will also seek to understand any associated studies (sketches, preparatory models, etc.) and other works by the artist and his or her contemporaries.

Art historians also use many written sources in the quest for contextual information about a work of art. Often these texts are stored in archives or libraries. Archival sources may include items such as letters between the artist and patron, or other documents pertaining to the commission, and art criticism produced at the time the work of art was made. An art historian might also search for written documentation about the materials used to produce the work of art, such as their cost and source, and about the function of the artwork—how a particular sculpture was used in ritual practice, for example. Art historians also seek to situate the work in the context of the literature, music, theater, and history of the time period.

Art historians may also rely on interviews with artists and consumers of works of art. This is especially the case in cultures that rely more on oral history than on written documents. Guided by the field of anthropology, some art historians also use methods such as participant observation to understand the context of a work of art. An art historian studying masquerade traditions in West Africa, for example, may participate in a performance while carefully documenting the event in order to better understand art traditions.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ART HISTORY

As an academic discipline, art history arose in the mid-eighteenth century. However, we can look at the work of much earlier writers to see how commentary on art has developed over time. The ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) sought to analyze historical and contemporary art in his text Natural History. During the Renaissance, the author and artist Giorgio Vasari (1511–74) gathered the biographies of great Italian artists, past and present, in The Lives of the Artists. Vasari’s text provides us with insights into the changing roles of artists in society during this period and the developing concept of artistic genius.

Giorgio Vasari, self-portrait c. 1567.

Modern art history was strongly influenced by eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy. Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68) was a German scholar who shifted away from Vasari’s biographical emphasis to a rigorous study of stylistic development as related to historical context. Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, art historians continued to develop approaches that placed increasing emphasis on an understanding of the interrelationship between the formal qualities of a work of art and its context.

When considering contemporary views of art history as well as perspectives on art history from the past, it is important to keep in mind that all histories are individual stories and thus will inevitably reflect certain biases. More recently, art history has been revised, particularly by feminist historians, who have noted that the traditional version of art history has largely focused on white men, whether as artists or as patrons. As a result of such revisions, art history has expanded its scope in recent years and has become a field that is broader, more international, more multicultural, and more inclusive than in the past, often involving Marxist, feminist, and psychoanalytic methods and viewpoints. Moreover, the concern with great artistic geniuses and masterpieces has lessened as the full range of “visual culture,” ranging from advertisement posters to film to photography and television imagery, has come to view.

Brief Overview of the Art of the Western World

This brief overview of Western art is intended to provide you with a basic understanding of important art historical periods as they developed chronologically. This abbreviated discussion also covers some key artistic innovations that occurred over time, providing you with examples of artists and works in their historical contexts. This basic information will set the stage for our more in-depth discussion of our case study focusing on innovations in art. Of course, a brief guide such as this only begins to touch upon the richness and power of the stories that comprise the history of art. You may also enjoy looking at other works from each of the periods discussed, beginning your own exploration of these works in their historical contexts.

Much of what we know of the earliest life on earth has been revealed through a study of the objects or artifacts that remain from early cultures. In many cases, the objects that remain are those made of enduring materials such as stone, metal, or fired clay, as opposed to those made of perishable materials like wood or fibers. Environmental conditions also have a major impact on preservation. The hot dry climate of the desert in Egypt, for example, enabled the preservation of even delicate materials like papyrus, and the sealed atmosphere of a cave or tomb likewise helped to preserve the objects contained within them for our wonder and enjoyment centuries later. In contrast, the humid climate of West Africa means that objects made of perishable materials have had little chance of survival over the course of decades, not to mention centuries.

This is one reason that the history of art as a discipline has placed greater emphasis on Western cultures, often neglecting to focus on developments in Nonwestern cultures. It is important to recognize that the civilizations that are most often studied in art history courses are not necessarily those where the most or the best art was made. Rather, they are the civilizations whose art has been preserved and whose art has been discovered. There are, for example, many sites of important civilizations in Central and South America that though known, remain yet unexplored. Too often the story at these sites has been one of exploitation and destruction, as people will carelessly take artifacts to sell them on the international market in antiquities.

Painting found in Chauvet Cave.

Ancient Civilizations

ART OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The oldest works of art that we will consider are the cave paintings found in Chauvet Cave in southeastern France. These paintings, discovered in 1994, date from c. 30,000 BCE and thus are placed in the Old Stone Age (Upper Paleolithic Period). It should be noted that art historians use the best available information to date works of art from the distant past. Estimated dates are frequently contested and sometimes revised as new information becomes available. Except for a minimal use of yellow, the paintings and engravings in Chauvet Cave were created using red ochre and black charcoal and depict animals such as horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalos, and mammoths. Later cave paintings (c. 15,000–10,000 BCE) have also been discovered in other parts of France and in Spain, with those in Lascaux and Altamira being the most famous. The art in these caves takes the form of large colored drawings of animals such as horses, bears, lions, bison, and mammoths, and the paintings include several outlines of human hands. The earliest scholarship on these drawings considered them to be the spontaneous scribbling of primitive cavemen. However, with further study, it became apparent that the various groups of drawings had been created by skilled artists working within an established tradition. The artists used pigments of red and yellow ochre to add color to the elegant black outlines they had created using charcoal. Though we cannot be sure of their original function, it is possible that these works were created as a part of hunting ceremonies or other ritual behaviors.

Another well-known group of artworks from the Old Stone Age are small stone female figures that have exaggerated bellies, breasts, and pubic areas. The best known of these figures is the Venus (or Woman) of Willendorf (c. 28,000–25,000 BCE), which is about four and one-eighth inches high. In contrast to the exaggerated female features of the body, the facial features of the statue are undefined, the arms are barely visible, and the feet are missing. Scholars contend that these statues were fertility figures although it is not known precisely how they were used.

ART OF THE MIDDLE STONE AGE

During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period) the climate warmed, and a culture developed that produced art similar in some ways to the cave paintings of the Paleolithic Period. With the warming of temperatures during this era, cave dwellers moved out of their caves and began using rock shelters, as evidenced by the various paintings that have been discovered on such locations in eastern Spain. There has been much scholarly debate regarding the dating of these paintings, but it is generally estimated that they were created from around 7000 BCE until 4000 BCE. The rock shelter paintings, like the cave paintings that preceded them, demonstrate the skill of their creators in the depiction of animal figures. What sets the rock shelter paintings apart from the cave paintings is their depiction of the human figure. Except for one human figure found in the paintings at Lascaux, cave paintings did not include any human beings. The rock shelter paintings, however, portray human beings, both alone and in groups, and there seems to be an emphasis on scenes in which human beings dominate animals.

ART OF THE NEW STONE AGE

The art forms most often linked with the New Stone Age (Neolithic Period) are rings or rows of rough-hewn stones located in Western Europe. These formations have been dated as early as 4000 BCE. The stones used were often exceedingly large—as much as seventeen feet in height and fifty tons in weight. Indeed, the sheer size of these works led historians to call the stones megaliths, meaning “great stones,” and the culture that created these works is often termed “megalithic.” The most well known of these rock arrangements is the one found at Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England. Stonehenge is believed to have been built in many phases around 2100 BCE. Stonehenge features concentric rings made with sarsen (a form of sandstone) stones and smaller “bluestones”—rocks indigenous to the region. The outermost ring is comprised of huge sarsen stones in post and lintel construction—two upright pieces topped with a crosspiece, or lintel. The next ring is composed of bluestones, which encircle a horseshoe-shaped row of five lintel-topped sarsen stones—these are the largest ones used at Stonehenge, with some weighing as much as fifty tons. Outside the formation, to the northeast, is the vertically placed “heel-stone.” If one stands in the center of the rings and looks outward, this “heel-stone” marks the point at which the sun rises on the midsummer solstice.

The works of art and the ideas we have considered thus far have been isolated examples that have survived a very long time. The works and civilizations that we will consider next point to further conditions that allow for the creation of artworks and enable their survival. Usually, art thrives in highly organized cultures with stable population centers—usually great cities—that house ruling classes who in turn support the work of artists. Also, if a civilization has a tradition of protecting its art in locations that are largely inaccessible, it is more likely that the works from that culture will survive to a point where they are included in a study of art history. Many extant artifacts have come from burial chambers, caves, and tombs, where they have been protected by being naturally concealed.

Photograph of Stonehenge.

Photo by Frédéric Vincent.

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIAN ART

The civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers developed writing and arts in parallel with Egypt (discussed later). Unfortunately, the Mesopotamian civilizations formed in a valley that lacked the natural barriers of deserts and mountains that protected Egypt. This left them vulnerable to invasion, and hence, the history of this ancient region is one of successive conquest and destruction. Moreover, the use of more perishable materials by Mesopotamian civilizations has left us with fewer examples of their arts.

From around 4000 BCE, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia created impressive sculptures and buildings. Religion was a central aspect of Sumerian life, and the Sumerians built massive temples at the centers of their cities. Less complex platform structures evolved over time into the stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Around 2334 BCE, the cities of Sumer came under the rule of Sargon of Akkad. Although the Akkadians spoke a different language from the Sumerians, they assimilated Sumerian culture. With the Akkadian dynasty, loyalty to the city-state was supplanted by loyalty to the king, and consequently the art of this period tends to reflect an emphasis on the monarchy, with Akkadian rulers depicted in freestanding and relief sculptures. Around 2150 BCE, Akkadian rule came to an end as the Guti, barbarous mountaineers, invaded and took control. About fifty years later, however, the cities of Sumer were able to reassert control, and a Neo-Sumerian ruler was established as the King of Ur. Perhaps the greatest known works of this era were the ziggurats that were built at the city centers. The ziggurats functioned primarily as temples but also served as administrative and economic centers.

The 4100-year-old Great Ziggurat of Ur, near Nasiriyah, Iraq.

The next important civilization in Mesopotamia was that of the Babylonians. For centuries Mesopotamia had witnessed the coexistence of several independent city-states, but around 1792 BCE, Hammurabi, king of the city-state of Babylonia, was able to centralize power. Hammurabi left an enduring legacy in that he codified Babylonian law—the Code of Hammurabi is the oldest legal code known in its entirety. The best-known artwork from this period, preserved in the Louvre Museum, is related to this code of law; it is a stone stele onto which Hammurabi’s code is carved with a sculpture in high relief at the top that depicts Hammurabi receiving inspiration for his code of law from the sun-god, Shamash.

While the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures grew in southern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians dominated in the north. From about 900 BCE to around 600 BCE, the Assyrians were the most powerful civilization in the Near East. Among the most notable of Assyrian artworks are relief carvings, which often depict battles, sieges, hunts, and other important events. Throughout the seventh century BCE, the Assyrian hold on power weakened, and from c. 612–538 BCE, Babylonia once again became the dominant force in the region. It was during this Neo-Babylonian period that the famous hanging gardens of Babylon were constructed. Another important construction at this time was the gateway to the great ziggurat of the temple of Bel, called the Ishtar Gate, which is considered one of the greatest works of architecture in which figures—in this case animal figures—are superimposed on a walled surface.

Burial mask of King Tutankhamun.

PERSIAN ART

The Persian Empire (c. 538 BCE–330 BCE) flourished in what is present-day Iran. The Persians were notable for their impressive architectural achievements, the most important of which was the palace at Persepolis, which was constructed of stone, brick, and wood and reflects the influence of Egyptian architecture.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART

Ancient Egyptian civilization is generally dated from c. 3150 BCE, beginning with the predynastic period, through 332 BCE, when Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great. Recognizable works include the great monuments of ancient Egypt: the Sphinx, the great pyramids at Giza, the larger-than-life-sized statues of the Pharaohs, and the portrait head of Queen Nefertiti.

Much Egyptian art emphasizes a style called hierarchical scale, which uses the status of figures or objects to determine their relative sizes within an artwork. Hierarchical scale is exemplified in the Palette of King Narmer, c. 3150–3125 BCE, a relic from the Old Kingdom (Dynasties III–VI). This slab of stone, which may have been used as a ceremonial palette for mixing cosmetics, presents King Narmer centrally, and he is depicted as being considerably larger than the other figures. In the main image on the palette, Narmer is seen holding the hair of a fallen enemy, with his arm raised in preparation for delivering a deathblow. In the lowest section of the palette, below the king and his enemy, are two smaller figures of defeated enemies. The organization of the figures, their relative sizes, and their poses recurred in most of the ancient Egyptian art that followed. Figures are presented so that each part of the body is shown as clearly as possible, in a technique known as “fractional representation.” The head is in profile with the eye in frontal view, the torso is in full frontal view, and the lower body, legs, and feet are in profile. This formula became a standard style that endured for centuries as the typical way of representing people in Egyptian art.

We know a great deal about the art of Egypt because excellent conditions for preservation were present in much of Egypt. In addition, the burial customs of the Egyptians, which decreed mummification and entombment with lavish furnishings, symbolic servants, and jewelry, resulted in rich stores of objects and images. The most famous of the Egyptian tombs is that of the boy king, Tutankhamun. By the twentieth century, most of the ancient Egyptian tombs of the Pharaohs had been broken into and robbed of the materials inside. However, Tutankhamun’s tomb, because it was cleverly hidden, remained almost completely intact until 1922. When it was opened, the excavators found a treasure-trove of objects, all superbly made of rich materials. Among the most famous of the objects is Tutankhamun’s burial mask. This mask, found in the innermost layer of the king’s sarcophagus, rested on the mummy’s face and shoulders. It is made of gold and is decorated with blue glass and semi-precious stones. The mask presents an idealized portrait of the young king.

NUBIAN ART

The kingdom of Nubia lay to the south of Egypt and covered a large area of Africa. As contemporary historians become increasingly interested in revising and expanding art history, more knowledge about this great African civilization is being uncovered. Indeed, it is now known that there was a period in the history of Egypt when Nubia ruled the area, and the Pharaohs of that era were Nubian. While there are few collections that feature Nubian works, this may well soon change as revisions to the story of art continue.

Greek and Roman Art

CYCLADIC, MINOAN, AND MYCENAEAN ART

The Aegean island cultures were very important as precursors of the Greeks in terms of art production. Three major cultures flourished on the islands in the Aegean Sea, on Crete, and along the Aegean coast. The earliest of these cultures, the Cycladic culture, flourished from about 3200 to 2000 BCE in the Cyclades, a group of islands in the Aegean. Archaeologists still have many unanswered questions about Cycladic culture, but the simplified, geometric nude female figures from this area are highly appealing to modern sensibilities. In addition to these sculptures, the Cycladic culture produced decorated pieces of pottery as well as marble bowls and jars. Eventually, the Cycladic culture was supplanted by the Minoan culture, which developed on the island of Crete and reached its pinnacle in the second millennium BCE.

The Minoan culture centered around the city of Knossos on Crete, where the legend of the Minotaur—the creature believed to be half man and half bull who devoured those who entered his maze—is supposed to have taken place. The maze was actually the royal palace, a sprawling complex that has since been excavated. The art of these island people depicts sea life and includes statues of a female snake goddess. The Minoans created artworks that were characterized by a naturalistic pictorial style. Their paintings took two major forms: frescoes painted on palace walls and pottery designs. The architectural achievements of the Minoans were also impressive, as they built four major palaces, all completely unfortified and designed in a light, flexible, and organic style.

The collapse of the Minoan civilization coincided with the pinnacle of Mycenaean culture, and as a result, many historians believe the Minoans were destroyed by the Mycenaeans. The Mycenaean culture was centered around the city of Mycenae on the Greek mainland. The Mycenaeans built elaborate tombs, and their burial practices allowed for a large number of objects to be preserved. The objects that are best known are made of gold and show astonishing levels of mastery in goldsmithing. Additionally, the Mycenaeans demonstrated much skill in their use of relief sculpture.

ANCIENT GREEK ART

From around 660 to 475 BCE, during the Archaic Period, the Greeks, influenced by the stone sculptures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, created sculptures carved in marble and limestone. These freestanding figures borrowed the frontal pose used in Egyptian art, but were more dynamic and placed greater emphasis on depicting realistic human features. Temples were also built during this time period using columns in the early Doric and ionic decorative styles. Vase painting was another notable art form and was done in many different styles. Some vases portrayed black silhouetted figures, while those in the Corinthian style set figures against a floral, ornamented background. Athenian-style vases used black figures, but were more linear and larger in scale. Red-figure vases, with red figures standing out against a black background, were also common.

The best-known ancient Greek art is that from the city-state of Athens from the Classical Period. During the Early Classical Period, temples were typically built with sturdy, Doric columns. Unfortunately, much of the sculpture from this period has not survived, but luckily Roman copies have provided us with a good deal of information on these ancient works. The sculpture of the Early Classical Period was characterized by its solemnity, strength, and simplicity of form and most often focused on a figure or scene either in the moment before or the moment after an important action. Significant advances were made in sculptural techniques, as the stiff frontal postures of the Archaic Period were largely abandoned in favor of more complex and life-like figures and positions.

Greek statuary evolved from a stiff, frontal presentation like that of the Egyptians to an increasingly natural-looking figure. A pose called “contrapposto,” or counter positioning, was invented to show the body to its best advantage. In contrapposto, the standing figure is posed with its weight shifted onto one leg, for a more relaxed, naturalistic appearance. Greek sculpture set the model for thousands of years in Western art, and the Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical artists of the fifteenth through early nineteenth centuries aspired to equal the perfection displayed by the surviving Greek statues.

The Middle Classical Period witnessed important advances in architecture as is evident in the temples of this time period. The temple called the Parthenon, restored in 447 BCE after being destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE, is one of the most admired works of all ages, and the use of columns as exemplified in the Parthenon has been a principal feature of Western architecture for more than two thousand years.

Architecture declined during the Late Classical Period as Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian War. Temples in this era were still built using simple Doric columns, but the use of highly decorative Corinthian columns became more and more popular. The Hellenstic Period saw an increasing influence from Eastern civilizations as Greek styles blended with those of Asia Minor. Notable works of this time period include freestanding sculptures such as the Venus de Milo and the Laocoön Group, which are masterworks designed to present ideals of beauty.

Diagram of Greek and Roman Orders. Classical Greek and Roman columns consist of a base, shaft, capital, and an entablature. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders are differentiated by their degree of ornamentation.

ETRUSCAN ART

The art of the Etruscan civilization is seen as a transition from the ideals of Greece to the pragmatic concerns of the Romans. Etruscan civilization arose in what is now Italy in the first millennium BCE. Like other cultures we have examined, this one is known largely from the arts of tomb decoration. Nothing remains of Etruscan buildings as these were constructed of brick and wood. However, ceramic models depict temples with tiled, gabled roofs supported by columns in the fashion of the Greeks. Extant Etruscan artifacts also include sarcophagus lids and other art forms made of baked clay, as well as objects that display the Etruscans’ talent in bronze work. The only paintings that remain from the Etruscan culture are those found on the walls and ceilings of tombs. These were done in bright, flat colors, and they show figures playing music and dancing as part of funeral celebrations.

ROMAN ART

The story of Rome is one of conquest and empire building. Early Roman art reflected the influence of Etruscan art. However, by the second century BCE many Roman sculptures and other Roman artworks were variations of Greek works, and the standards for idealized presentations of Roman rulers were based on those of the Greeks. The Romans, however, made pioneering advancements in architecture and engineering. The Roman discovery of the equivalent of modern concrete was a major contribution to architecture, as it enabled Roman builders to fill the spaces between their stone walls with rocks and rubble bound together by the concrete mixture. With this strong material, the Romans were able to construct huge domed buildings. They also pioneered the use of the curved arch, using this form to build bridges and aqueducts. These structures were part of the paved road system, making communication and control very effective in the Empire. Two buildings that can still be seen in Rome, the Colosseum (72–80 CE) and the Pantheon (c. 126 CE), remain as monuments to the engineering genius of the Romans.

The Colosseum in a 1757 engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi.

The Romans created numerous sculptures. Often, colossal triumphal arches would be topped with relief sculptures portraying Roman emperors or Roman military victories. The Romans also created relief sculptures for funerary purposes. Tombs and sarcophagi were decorated with reliefs. Some of these reliefs were simply decorative, but many others had narrative subject matter. The Romans also sculpted portraits, which ranged in size from tiny busts to huge statues. During the Roman Republic it became common for members of a funeral procession to carry small carved images of the deceased family member. Later, statues in memory of great statesmen or other noble figures were erected in public areas. Both the funerary sculptures and the public statues did not present naturalistic depictions of their subject. Rather, the Romans favored an idealistic style that highlighted Roman ideals. The art of the Romans not only had a tremendous influence on the art of the Middle Ages, but also had a notable impact on the art of the Renaissance and much of the art that followed.

Byzantine and Medieval Art

With the fall of the Roman Empire, the connections between its parts disintegrated, and what was once a vast empire evolved into separate and often warring kingdoms. But even as the Empire disintegrated in Western Europe, it continued in Byzantium. The art that is best known from this Eastern culture is mosaic work in which small ceramic tiles, pieces of stone, or glass were set into a ground material to create large murals. It is an art that is largely Christian in content and can best be studied in the glimmering, shining mosaic walls of the great churches of Ravenna. Although Ravenna is in present-day Italy, it was then under Byzantine control. In terms of Byzantine architecture, the Hagia Sophia (532–537 CE), built in Constantinople, is still considered one of the greatest architectural achievements in history.

The medieval period witnessed a great deal of civil strife, and consequently the art of this era was preserved largely by the Church. During these times, the majority of the population was illiterate; formal education was largely limited to the noble class and the clergy. The international language was still Latin, and books were hand copied on vellum or parchment. The preservation and production of books was largely confined to monasteries, where the monks spent time copying and illustrating the books in their collections, which were so valuable that they were chained to the tables where they were read. These illuminated manuscripts were remarkable works of art and helped facilitate the exchange of artistic ideas between northern and southern Europe. Among the many notable examples are the Book of Kells (late eighth or early ninth century) and the Coronation Gospels (c. 800–810).

Major types of arches and vaults.

Notable from the early medieval period (c. 375–1025) is the art of nomadic Germanic peoples, particularly their metalwork. The metal arts of this time period were abstract, decorative, and geometric and often took the form of small-scale, portable jewelry or ornaments made of bronze, silver, or gold and covered with patterns of jewels. Artifacts from this era also exist from the seafaring culture of the Vikings in Scandinavia. While metalwork was popular with the Germanic peoples, wood was the most important medium to the Vikings, who carved artistic designs and sculptures on their wooden ships. As a result of Viking invasions, the artistic styles of the Vikings eventually merged with those found in Anglo-Saxon England and Celtic Ireland. The resultant style is often termed Hiberno-Saxon.

In later medieval art, the architecture of churches became a dominant art form. Every city, town, and village had a church at its center, and the largest of these are masterpieces of art that often took more than a century to complete. The earliest churches of this period used a Roman arch as the basis of their design, and so the style used is called Romanesque. One famous example is Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France (c. 1070–1120). Romanesque churches were stone vaulted buildings that often replaced earlier churches that had highly flammable wooden roofs. Romanesque churches are usually formed of a tunnel of arches called a barrel vault. A vault is an arch-shaped structure that is used as a ceiling or as a support to a roof. Massive walls had to be built to support the heavy stone arches of the Romanesque style. Consequently, window and door openings were usually kept quite small and were often decorated with carvings and relief sculpture.

The Gothic style developed in the first half of the twelfth century and remained popular into the sixteenth century. Though this style was used for some secular buildings, it was largely applied to the construction of churches. One characteristic of the Gothic style was the use of pointed arches, which gave an upward, soaring sense to Gothic interiors. Another important element of the Gothic style was the addition of ribbed vaults, a framework of thin stone ribs or arches built under the intersection of the vaulted sections of the ceiling. A key innovation came in the early Gothic period when architects learned that the downward and outward pressure created by the arches of the barrel vault could be counteracted by the use of flying buttresses—additional bracing material and arches placed on the exterior of the building. This advance allowed for larger windows, many of which were filled with beautiful stained glass, and higher ceilings. A classic example of a Gothic cathedral is Chartres Cathedral in France (begun c. 1145; rebuilt after 1194). Here the effect of the tall arches and the brightly colored light from the stained-glass windows directs attention heavenward.

The Renaissance in Southern Europe

Although we often tend to divide historical periods into a series of discreet and separate styles and events, in actuality, history is much more complicated and subtle. The transition from the later medieval period to the Renaissance provides a good example of this, as the styles from this period cannot be neatly identified as either Gothic or Renaissance, but rather involve a mix of the two. The artist most often mentioned in connection with this transitional time period is a Florentine named Giotto di Bondone (1267–1336/37), who is best known for his frescoes. A key advance visible in Giotto’s works is his use of a simple perspective, achieved in large part by overlapping and modeling his figures in the round. This technique created the illusion of a stage for his figures, giving the viewer a sense of looking into the event. Giotto’s works were different from many Gothic works as he gave his figures powerful gestures and emotional expressions. To our eyes, his paintings may not look entirely naturalistic, but his artistic innovations must have had quite an impact on viewers at the time, who were accustomed to the flat, unex-pressive, and stylized figures of the Gothic style.

Like the art of ancient Greece, the art of the Renaissance continues to have an impact on art today. It is interesting to note that a change in the economy played a key part in triggering the Renaissance. It was in this time period that paper money was first developed, and its use led, in part, to the vast fortunes accumulated by notables such as the Medici family. These wealthy families were the major patrons of the arts during the Renaissance era. Another important factor was the fact that examples of Greek and Roman art were readily available in Italy, and these classical works of art had a tremendous impact on the art of the Renaissance.

As we discuss the art of this period and later, you will observe that the lives and works of individual artists are often highlighted, while this has not been the case in our discussion of earlier periods. In part this can be attributed to a new emphasis on the individual and the concept of individual genius that emerged during the Renaissance. Until the time of the Renaissance, painters and sculptors were, in accordance with Greek traditions of art, considered artisans. That is, they were people who were viewed as being of lesser status because they worked with their hands. During the Renaissance the role of artists in society changed, as great artists came to be recognized as intellectual figures. Consequently, artists were accorded a special place in society.

An important event in the beginning of the Renaissance was a competition held in the city of Florence in 1401 for the design of the doors for the city’s new baptistery. The winner of that competition was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381?–1455), who designed a door panel that had figures harkening back to those of classical Greece. Ghiberti’s panel design depicts the sacrifice of Isaac, in which Isaac appears as a classical Greek figure. Soon after the doors were installed, Ghiberti was asked to make a second set for another entrance to the cathedral. This second set took more than twenty-five years to complete. The doors were so magnificent that Michelangelo called them the “Gates of Paradise,” and they have been referred to by that name ever since.

The second-place winner in the competition was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). After losing the competition, he concentrated on architecture and won a competition to complete the dome of the cathedral in Florence, which had remained unfinished for many years because architects had not been able to construct the huge vault that was required to span the open space. Brunelleschi achieved this major engineering feat with the help of a double-shelled dome design that has been imitated by many later architects. Brunelleschi is also credited with developing linear (single vanishing point) perspective. Masaccio (1401–28), a Renaissance painter, is given credit for putting Brunelleschi’s theory into practice, as he used both linear and aerial perspective in his frescoes. The development of linear perspective had a tremendous and lasting influence on the world of art.

Among the most remarkable of Renaissance artists was Donatello (1389?–1466), who is widely considered the founder of modern sculpture. The influence of classical antiquity on his sculpture was strong, as evidenced by his best-known work, a bronze statue of David (c. 1420s–60s). This work was the first known freestanding nude statue to have been cast since antiquity. Toward the end of his life, Donatello’s sculptures reflected a greater emphasis on naturalism and the expression of character and dramatic action.

View of the dome of Florence Cathedral.

Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa.

A generation later, the work of Botticelli (1444?–1510), particularly his best-known painting, The Birth of Venus (c. 1482), established an image of female beauty that has lasted through the centuries. His long-necked Venus with her languid pose and flowing hair was one of the first paintings of a full-length nude female since antiquity.

The generation of artists that followed are often referred to as High Renaissance artists. Two well-known artists of this time period, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Michelangelo (1475–1564), are the models for the term “Renaissance Man.” Leonardo da Vinci is well known as an inventor, but also is recognized as an architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, scientist, and musician. His design for the locks that control movements along canals from one level to another is still used today, and his drawings of submarines and helicopters have been found to be viable models. Two of his paintings, The Last Supper (c. 1495–98), and the Mona Lisa (c.1503–05), have become so well known that they are now icons of popular culture. Leonardo’s key innovation in painting, which is readily apparent in the Mona Lisa, is the use of sfumato. Sfumato, from the Italian word fumo, meaning smoke, is the use of mellowed colors and a blurred outline. Sfumato allows forms to blend subtly into one another without perceptible transitions.

At the same time that Leonardo was working in Florence, another artist, Michelangelo di Buonarotti, was at work on the piece that would establish his reputation as a sculptor. The city held a competition to have a statue created from a massive piece of marble that it had acquired, only to discover that the marble was flawed. Taking this difficult piece, which had a large crack in the middle, Michelangelo turned it into his vision of David (1504). The statue is larger than life-sized, as it was originally meant to be placed high on the façade of the cathedral in Florence and would have been viewed from far below. The beautiful carving, the smooth texture of the finished marble, and the striking pose were seen as the very embodiment of the spirit of Florence as a republic.

Throughout his stormy career, Michelangelo created a large number of other important sculptures, but it is a painting that often comes to mind when people hear his name. In 1505, Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to design his tomb. Michelangelo began sculpting great statues such as Moses (c. 1513–15), The Dying Slave (1513–16), and The Bound Slave (1513–16) to be included in the Pope’s colossal tomb. However, in the midst of this commission, the Pope canceled the project for uncertain reasons. The cancellation of his work on the Pope’s tomb was one of the greatest disappointments of Michelangelo’s career, and he was bitter and hesitant when Pope Julius II gave him another commission. This time, the artist was asked to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. It took Michelangelo four years, from 1508 to 1512, to cover the seven hundred square yards of the ceiling, but the result was an astonishing tour de force. The great masterpiece of the Sistine Ceiling received renewed attention in recent decades, as restorers set about cleaning the great frescoes. The cleaning removed the collection of oil, wax, and grime that had accumulated over the centuries, and the colors have returned to their original brightness. Not everyone was happy with the results of the cleaning, however, and a controversy about this restoration, as well as the restoration of artworks in general, continues within the art world. One of the most influential painters of the High Renaissance was Raphael Sanzio (1483–1520). When he was a young painter, Raphael was brought to Rome, where Julius II gave him several commissions. During this period, Raphael learned much from Michelangelo, his older rival. Unlike Michelangelo, Raphael was not a loner, but employed numerous assistants to help him cover the Pope’s official chambers with large, sumptuous frescoes, notably the School of Athens (c. 1508–11), an homage to the great Greek philosophers and scientists. Raphael is considered the most influential painter of the Madonna. His masterworks, such as the Sistine Madonna (c. 1513–14), created an image of the Virgin Mary that has endured in religious paintings throughout the centuries.

A partial view of Matthias Grünewald’s Insenheim Altarpiece.

Rome and Florence were not the only locations to witness an incredible flowering in the arts. Venice, too, became a center of artistic creativity. Giorgione (1477/78–1510) is credited with making innovations in the subject matter of landscapes, as he painted scenes not taken from the Bible or from classical or allegorical stories. Prior to Giorgione’s painting The Tempest (c. 1508), artists had generally begun with the figures that were to be the subject matter of the painting and then added the background. However, in The Tempest the landscape became the subject of the painting—the figures depicted are of lesser importance than the storm that threatens them.

Titian Vecelli (c. 1488–1576) was one of the most prolific of the Venetian painters. Titian is well known for his portraits of his patrons, and he is also recognized as having been the greatest colorist of the Renaissance artists. Titian was an innovative portraitist. He used various elements of setting, such as a column or a curtain, as the backdrop for his portraits instead of an atmospheric neutral background, as had been the custom. The influence of Titian’s use and arrangement of background elements can be seen in portraiture up through the twenty-first century.

Tintoretto (1518–94), another great Venetian painter, is often linked with an artistic style called mannerism that grew in popularity in the late sixteenth century. Mannerist works are characterized by the distortion of certain elements such as perspective or scale and are also recognizable by their use of acidic colors and the twisted positioning of their subjects. Although Tintoretto used some Mannerist pictorial techniques, his color schemes differed from those of the Mannerists. Tintoretto presented his figures from dramatic angles—it is said that he used small figures as models and arranged them and rearranged them until he had the most dramatic effect. He also used dramatic contrasts of light and dark, called chiaroscuro, to heighten the emotional impact of his subjects. Tintoretto’s later works are marked by their spiritual subject matter, and his use of sharp perspectives and chiaroscuro anticipate the Baroque era.

One of the most important events impacting the history of sixteenth-century art was the Reformation. Protestants criticized the opulence and corruption of the Catholic Church and called for its purification. For art, this meant a move away from the richly decorated churches and religious imagery of the Renaissance. The Church reacted to the Protestant Reformation by launching a Counter Reformation, which emphasized, even more than before, lavish church decoration and art of a highly dramatic and emotional nature. One of the artists most closely associated with the Counter Reformation is Dominikos Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco. El Greco was strongly influenced by Tintoretto’s paintings, and he worked for a period of time in Titian’s workshop in Venice. In 1576, El Greco left Italy for Toledo, Spain. El Greco is one of the most well-known of the Mannerist painters, and his dramatic use of elongated figures captured the religious fervor of the Counter Reformation. The works of both El Greco and Tintoretto can be seen as transitional works bridging the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque period.

The Renaissance in Northern Europe

During the fifteenth century, the artworks being produced in northern Europe were smaller in scale than those of contemporaneous artists to the south. However, the work of northern artists displayed a degree of realistic detail beyond what can be seen in works of the south, primarily due to their use of new oil paints. While the Renaissance was occurring in Italy, much of European art north of the Alps was still Gothic in style. The influence of classical antiquity was also much less of a factor in the north, as the northerners did not share Italy’s cultural connection with ancient Rome, nor did they have the advantage of being in close proximity to ancient Roman works as did their Italian counterparts.

The art of northern Europe in the sixteenth century demonstrates a far greater awareness of the Italian Renaissance than that of the fifteenth century. Many artists traveled to Italy to study the great works of the Renaissance, and some Italian artists brought these ideas with them when they traveled to the north. Engravers copied some of the more notable Italian works, and these engravings became available throughout Europe, thus spreading the ideas and styles of the Renaissance. Trade connections between upper-class German merchants and merchants in Venice, a center of trade and art, provided another avenue of influence.

Though the influence of the Italian masters was notable, not all northern artists embraced the ideals and innovative techniques of the Renaissance, as many maintained a more traditional approach. Moreover, though linear perspective and the colors used farther south did travel northward, the manner in which they were used in the northern countries was quite different.

During the fifteenth century and into the early decades of the sixteenth century, areas of southern Germany witnessed a flowering of artistic production. Matthias Grünewald (1475?–1528) and Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) are often considered the greatest artists of the Renaissance in northern Europe. Although only ten of Grünewald’s works have survived, his influence has nonetheless been notable. Grünewald is known for his religious scenes and his depiction of Christ’s crucifixion. The Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510–15), a work consisting of nine panels mounted on two sets of folding wings, is considered to be his greatest masterpiece.

Albrecht Dürer is perhaps the most famous artist of Reformation Germany. Dürer’s early training was largely influenced by late Gothic works, but as the ideas of the Italian Renaissance spread northward in the sixteenth century, Dürer’s work began to reflect some of these new influences. Dürer aimed to achieve a style that combined the naturalistic detail favored by artists of the north with the theoretical ideas developed by Italian artists. He traveled to Italy, studied the work of his Italian contemporaries, and brought his new knowledge back to Germany. Dürer wrote about theories of art and published many series of woodcuts and copper engravings, such as The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498).

Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) is another important artist of this era, and he is considered one of the greatest Renaissance portraitists. Though born in Germany, Holbein is best known for his work in England. He became court painter to King Henry VIII of England, and his portrait of Henry VIII shows not only his talent for presenting details, but also his ability to capture the psychological character of his subjects. Holbein’s works became the model and standard for English painting up through the nineteenth century.

Rembrandt’s The Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch, known as the ‘Night Watch’.

Baroque Art

The term “baroque” is generally used to refer to artworks produced from the late sixteenth century through the mid-eighteenth century. Baroque styles differed from those of the Renaissance in that Baroque artworks tended to be less static than Renaissance examples; the Baroque is characterized by a greater sense of movement and energy. The political structure of Europe during the Baroque era also differed from that of the Renaissance. Whereas the Renaissance witnessed wars between cities, the Baroque era saw conflicts between empires. During this time, the Church was determined to preserve its dominance in Spain and Italy, and movements like the Jesuits were founded to convert the peoples of other areas. Baroque art appealed largely to the emotions, and thus, these artists, influenced by the Counter Reformation, aimed at dramatic and moving appeals to faith.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe were a time when society was governed by a ruling class that viewed its power as a divine right. Some of the most powerful sovereigns ever to rule are from this period. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great of Russia, and King Louis XIV of France dominated the lives of the people of their countries. It was a time that saw the ongoing concentration of power and wealth into the hands of a few, until the results eventually became intolerable for the majority of the people. While a small minority of the population lived in great luxury, the lives of ordinary people were generally quite difficult, and eventually this disparity gave rise to protests like those found in the writings of Enlightenment authors, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in particular. Ironically, however, it was the patronage of the wealthy ruling class that gave rise to the great works of art of the period.

As we might expect, the art of the Baroque period moved away from the classic simplicity and calm that was so characteristic of Renaissance works. The word “baroque” has come to represent a richness of color and ornamentation that heightened the energy and emotion that were characteristic of the great works of art of this period. The emphasis was on dynamic works that presented imagery in the most dramatic way possible.

Baroque painters made use of chiaroscuro, using exaggerated contrasts between light and dark to create a theatrical kind of lighting that made the subject appear to be in a spotlight. Caravaggio (1571–1610), an Italian Baroque painter, was renowned for his dramatic use of light and dark, and his technique influenced many artists who followed. Caravaggio’s work is so important that artworks using extremes of dark and light are often termed “caravaggesque.” Caravaggio’s work is also notable for its provocative degree of naturalism. For example, Caravaggio portrayed the Virgin Mary and the apostles not as noble figures in classical garb as they had traditionally been represented, but instead depicted them as poor and simple folks in threadbare garments. His use of actual lower-class individuals as models for his work helped him achieve this effect. It is no wonder that several patrons of Caravaggio’s canvases rejected them for this reason.

With recent revisions of art history, a woman named Artemisia Gentileschi (1593?–1652?) has also joined the ranks of important Baroque artists. Gentileschi, the daughter of a painter, had the unusual opportunity to study in her father’s studio. She is particularly known for her remarkable adaptation of Carravaggio’s techniques. Her works include self-portraits and paintings of Old Testament women.

The most important Baroque artist, Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), the son of a sculptor, was a child prodigy who received recognition from the Pope at age seventeen. Bernini did his most significant work in sculpture, but he was also a talented architect, painter, and draftsman. He worked as a designer in the theater, and many of his works reflect the influence of his theatrical background. His most important masterpiece, the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647–52), is set into the altar of the Cornaro Chapel. The space includes a concealed stained-glass window that bathes the figure of the saint in dramatic gold lighting, as if she were on a stage. Bernini treated his medium in a new way as well. He did not adhere to the classical calm and natural flow of drapery around the figure that had been used in the past. Instead, Bernini pushed the use of marble to new limits and tried to make stone look like real fabric and even clouds.

The importance of the Baroque style extended beyond Italy. In Flanders, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) established a huge workshop and produced works of great energy and color that became models for many artists. In the mid-seventeenth century, Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69), a Dutch artist, created some of the best-known works from the Baroque period. Rembrandt is recognized not only as a painter and printmaker, but also as one of the greatest draftsmen ever. Perhaps his best-known work is The Night Watch (1642), more properly known as Sortie of Captain Banning Cocq’s Company of the Civic Guard. Like many other group portraits of the time, each member of the company depicted paid a certain sum to be included in the painting. Rembrandt chose to break with tradition and grouped the members of the company in a way that gave more attention to some members than to others. This break with tradition, as well as other problems in his life, ultimately caused the decline of his career. Though Rembrandt died in poverty, the self-portraits of his later years are considered to be some of the greatest studies of the inner life of the sitter ever to be painted.

It might be argued that the Baroque period reached its peak in France. There, Louis XIV had come to power, and his long reign was marked by a blossoming of French culture. Louis XIV united all of France and built a lavish palace at Versailles beginning in 1669. The palace and its grounds covered about two hundred acres and included various grand chateaux and gardens. There was a stable, capable of housing hundreds of horses, and a grand orangerie, or greenhouse, for the king’s orange trees. Eventually there was also a zoo and a system of fountains and waterfalls that included a grand canal large enough for the staging of mock sea battles. The opulence and power of this “sun king,” around whom the world of the court revolved, became a model that contemporaneous monarchs tried to emulate.

An important feature of Louis XIV’s court that was to influence art well into the nineteenth century was the system of choosing and supporting artists called the Salon. This annual exhibition established a set of rules for judging art that is still influential in the art world today. It was also under the rule of Louis XIV that the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, often referred to simply as the “Academy,” was established, and it soon came to be a means for imposing aesthetic standards and principles of taste.

Jacques Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii (1784).

To the south, the Spanish Court of King Philip IV of Spain tried to emulate the court of France, and his court painter, Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), was a contemporary of Bernini. Velázquez’s method of building his figures from patches of color, rather than starting from a drawing, became a model for many later artists. In fact, Velázquez’s work had an influence on the movement we call Impressionism.

Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism

While the rococo style might be seen as an extension of the Baroque period, it is quite different in style and content. Whereas the Baroque aimed to arouse grand emotions, Rococo works were celebrations of gaiety, romance, and the frivolity of the grand life at court, particularly the court at Versailles. The emphasis was on light-hearted decoration with the use of gold and pastel colors.

Three artists who excelled at capturing the elegance and wit so valued by their aristocratic patrons are considered the greatest masters of the Rococo style. Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721) was the leader of a new generation and the innovator of a new genre of painting called the fête galante. Paintings of this genre generally depicted members of the nobility in elegant contemporary dress enjoying leisure time in the countryside. François Boucher (1703–70) was influenced by Watteau’s delicate style. He became the favorite painter of Madame Pompadour, mistress to Louis XV, and his works often transformed the characters of classical myth into scenes of courtly gallantry, with an emphasis on nubile nudes. Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806) was also promoted by Madame Pompadour. Fragonard studied with Boucher, and his works strongly reflect Boucher’s influence.

Gustave Courbet’s The Stonebreakers.

The Revolution of 1789 in France ushered in an era of great change throughout Europe, and the idea of a democratic republic ruled by and for the people was reflected in the artwork of the time. In an attempt to hearken back to the democratic ideals of the ancient world, art of this period demonstrated a revival of interest in the art of classical Greece and Rome. This style, called Neoclassicism, emerged in the decades leading up to the Revolution and was also influenced by Enlightenment philosophy. The Neoclassical style, a direct challenge to the Rococo and its associations with the aristocracy, is epitomized in the work of Jacques Louis David (1748–1825), whose paintings, such as the Oath of the Horatii (1784), illustrated republican virtues. Following the Revolution, David joined members of the new government as the master of ceremonies for the grand revolutionary mass rallies. Later he became a dedicated painter to Napoleon Bonaparte, and in this capacity he painted large propagandistic canvases that would seem to undermine his earlier revolutionary ideals. A closer investigation of his work and his career reveals the complicated world of an artist and his patrons. The work of David’s pupil, Jean Dominique Ingres (1780–1867), shows the sharp outlines, unemotional figures, and careful geometric composition and rational order that are hallmarks of the Neoclassical style.

Ingres’s rival, Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863), was a proponent of Romanticism. This style hearkened back to the emotional emphasis of the Baroque and had similar characteristics, though the subject matter was different. Whereas Neoclassical works emphasized line, order, and a cool detachment, Romantic painting tended to be highly imaginative and was characterized by an emotional and dreamlike quality—the Romantics favored feeling over reason. Romantic works are also characterized by their incorporation of exotic or melodramatic elements and often took awe-inspiring natural wonders as their subject matter. Delacroix’s works are characteristic of the Romantic movement in that they centered on exotic themes and included foreign settings, violence involving animals, and historical subject matter. Théodore Gericault (1791–1824) and William Blake (1757–1827) were also important Romantic artists.

Realism and Impressionism

In many ways, Realism was a reaction to Neoclassicism and Romanticism. The Realist style was inspired by the idea that painting must illustrate all the features of its subjects, including the negative ones. It was also obligated to show the lives of ordinary people as subjects that were as important as the historical and religious themes that dominated the art exhibitions of the day. The artist who represented this movement most forcefully was Gustave Courbet (1819–77), a flamboyant and outgoing personality who outraged conventional audiences by showing a painting of ordinary workmen repairing a road at the official government-sponsored Salon. This work, called The Stonebreakers (1849–50), also had political implications in the context of a wave of revolutions that spread across Europe beginning in 1848. Realism can also be seen in the works of Honoré Daumier (1808–79) and Jean François Millet (1814–75).

Impressionism largely grew out of dissatisfaction with the rigid rules that had come to dominate the Salons held to recognize selected artists each year. Édouard Manet (1832–83) is sometimes referred to as the first Impressionist. Although he refused to consider himself as one of the Impressionists, Manet’s work, which showed light by juxtaposing bright, contrasting colors, nonetheless greatly inspired and influenced the generation of artists following him. Manet’s painting Le Dejéuner sur L’herbe (Luncheon on the Grass) (1863)—included in the Salon des Refusés in 1863, an exhibit of works rejected by the “official” Salon—was singled out for ridicule. The scandal surrounding this work resulted from its violation of the unwritten rule that the only appropriate nudes in contemporary art were classical figures or women in suitably exotic settings. In Luncheon on the Grass, Manet based his work on an engraving with a classical subject matter, but he showed clothed men with a nude woman as part of the group. This caused an uproar.

While Manet continued to submit his work to the Salon, other artists who disagreed with the rigid artistic standards espoused by the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and favored by the Salon set about establishing Impressionism as a new style. A work by Claude Monet (1840–1926) was the source of the movement’s name. Monet showed a work that he called Impression, Sunrise (1872), and the critics seized on this mere “impression” as a means by which to ridicule the movement. It was Monet who urged his fellow artists to work outdoors, and these endeavors were aided by technical advances in paint and brush production that made the medium more portable. Impressionist artists put their colors directly on the canvas with rapid strokes to capture the rapidly changing light. Scientific studies of vision and color led to the discovery that shadows were not merely gray but that they reflected the complementary color of the object casting them. Camille Pissarro (1830–1903) and Alfred Sisley (1839–99) were two other Impressionists of note.

Post-Impressionism and Other Late Nineteenth-Century Developments

The artists who followed Impressionism, though influenced by the earlier artists, took various features of Impressionism in quite different directions. The most influential of these artists was Paul Cézanne (1839–1906). Dissatisfied with the lack of solid form in Impressionist works, Cézanne set about redefining art in terms of form. He suggested that a painting could be structured as a series of planes with a clear foreground, middle ground, and background and argued that the objects in the painting could all be reduced to their simplest underlying forms—a cube, a sphere, or a cone. Here we should note the obvious influence that these ideas, presented first by Cézanne, later had on the development of Cubism in the early twentieth century.

The ongoing search for more and more brilliant color was a unifying feature for many of the Post-impressionists. The work of Georges Seurat (1859–91) placed an emphasis on the scientific rules of color. Seurat applied his colors in small dots of complementary colors that blended in the eye of the viewer in what is called optical mixing. The results were vibrant, though the emphasis on technique also resulted in static compositions.

As Seurat was attracting attention and Cézanne was formulating his rules for painting, a young Dutch painter named Vincent van Gogh (1853–90) was studying art. Van Gogh, using theories of contrasting color and very direct application of paint, set about capturing the bright light of southern France. His vigorous brushwork and twisting forms were designed to capture an intense response, and though his career was short, many of his works have become very well known. Van Gogh developed the idea that the artist’s colors should not slavishly imitate the colors of the natural world, but should be intensified to portray inner human emotions. The intense and jarring yellows, greens, and reds in the poolroom of Van Gogh’s Night Café (1888), which van Gogh considered a place of vice, illustrate this very influential idea.

The search for intense light and clear color also marks the work of Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), who is perhaps known as much for the story of his life as he is for his art. Though he was a successful stockbroker, Gauguin left his wife and family while in his forties to pursue his art career. He worked for a short time with van Gogh in southern France but was still dissatisfied with his art. Searching for more intense color and a more “unschooled” style, he went to Tahiti, where he painted works that depict the island’s lush, tropical setting and native people, as seen through the lens of colonialism.

At this juncture, it is important to note the outside influences that were affecting the changing art world. The invention of the camera called into question the very need to capture ordinary reality in art. Some of the most important inventions may seem quite mundane. The invention of chemically based paints and the paint tube allowed the Impressionists to paint outdoors easily for the first time. This was also a time of global exploration and colonialism, and the objects brought back from around the world had a profound effect on the Impressionists and the artists who followed. Artists were intrigued by masks from Africa, and many collected the Japanese prints that were used as packing for shipments of goods from Japan. An Impressionist whose work exemplifies these new influences is Edgar Degas (1834–1917). Degas often combined the snapshot style of photography with a Japanese-like perspective from slightly above his subject.

Self-Portrait of Vincent van Gogh.

In England, a group of artists dissatisfied with the effects of the Industrial Revolution banded together and became known as the Pre-Raphaelites. These artists created a style that attempted to return to the simpler forms of pre-Renaissance art. The Pre-Raphaelites created many quasi-religious works that often blended Romantic, archaic, and moralistic elements. Their emphasis on nature and sweeping curves paved the way for Art Nouveau. Art Nouveau, which became popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, was a style of decoration, architecture, and design that was characterized by the depiction of leaves and flowers in flowing, sinuous lines.

The Emergence of Modernism

As we move into the twentieth century, we see artists who were continually striving to discover new ways of presenting their ideas. Furthering the attempts the Post-Impressionists had made to extend the boundaries of color, a group of artists led by Henri Matisse (1869–1954) used colors so intense that they violated the sensibilities of critics and the public alike. Taking their cue from van Gogh, these artists no longer thought their use of color needed to replicate color as seen in the real world. Their wild use of arbitrary color earned them the name of fauves, or “wild beasts.”

Natural form was to be attacked with equal fervor, as can be seen in developments in Paris around 1908. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), in close collaboration with Georges Braque (1882–1963), was at work developing a whole new system of art. Picasso and Braque broke down and analyzed form in new ways in the style that came to be known as Cubism. Psychologists had explained that human experience is much richer than can be gathered from a traditional painting that shows a single view from a fixed vantage point. When we look at any given scene, we remember the scene as an overlay of visual impressions seen from different angles and moments in time. Picasso and Braque were familiar with these theories, as indicated by their habit of breaking figures up into multiple overlapping perspectives. The Cubists were also influenced by African art, which they imagined to be more intuitive and closer to nature than intellectualized European art. Cubist works reacted against the naturalistic, often sentimental, artworks that were popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The Cubists favored abstract forms over lifelike figures.

In Germany, an art developed that emphasized emotional responses. A group of artists calling themselves Die Brücke, which included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Emil Nolde (1867–1956), took the brilliant arbitrary colors of the Fauvists and combined them with the intense feelings found in the work of the Norwegian artist Edvard Munch (1863–1944). This highly charged attempt to make the inner workings of the mind visible in art is known as Expressionism. Another Expressionist group in Germany, Der Blaue Reiter, was led by the Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky (1866–1944), who around 1913 began to paint totally abstract pictures without any pictorial subject. Other pioneers of total abstraction were the Russian painter Kazimir Malevich (1878–1935) and the Dutch artist Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), whose De Stijl canvases, consisting of flat fields of primary color, have become a hallmark of modern art.

Pablo Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon.

The next events in our story of the history of art are important because they mark the beginnings of modern art in the United States. It was these beginnings, coupled with the effects of the First World War, that were partly responsible for the eventual shift of the center of the art world from Paris to New York. While the movements of modern art were sweeping Paris, the American scene remained largely unaffected until 1913. The Armory Show, arranged by the Barnes Foundation and held from February 17 through March 15, 1913, was the first major showing of modern art in the U.S., and it caused a sensation. Artworks that were to become landmarks of various European art movements were a part of the Armory Show, and they had a profound and lasting effect on American art. Marcel Duchamp’s (1887–1968) Nude Descending a Staircase (1912) and Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon (1907) both shocked viewers with their challenging approaches to the figure and space. Brancusi’s (1876–1957) The Kiss, with its abstracted, block-like figures, and Kandinsky’s non-objective paintings added to the outrage.

While the effects of the European works in the Armory Show rippled through the American art world, there was also a quintessentially American movement underway. During the 1920s, Harlem became a center for African-American creativity. Fueled by the popularity of jazz, writers and artists joined musicians in a flowering of the arts that is called the Harlem Renaissance. Though the movement lasted only a decade, it was an inspiration to many artists, including Jacob Lawrence, Romare Bearden, and other well-known artists of the next generation.

During World War I and its aftermath, another movement arose that challenged established ideas about art. This movement, called Dada, originated among a group of disaffected intellectuals living in Zurich and grew out of the angst of artists who were disillusioned with the war. Dada was an art that aimed to protest against everything in society and to lampoon and ridicule accepted values and norms. Marcel Duchamp created two works that have come to represent this amusing and irreverent view of the world. He added a mustache to a reproduction of the Mona Lisa and gave it an insulting title (LHOOQ, 1919), and he also exhibited a common porcelain urinal (Fountain, 1917).

Duchamp, in fact, invented a new category of artworks that he referred to as ready-mades. By taking an ordinary object and giving it a new context, Duchamp would create a work of art. In this way, Duchamp challenged traditional ideas about the way the artist functions—rather than physically making a work of art, an object became a work of art merely through the artist’s choice. Picasso created several works that may also be considered ready-mades. For example, in a famous work Picasso took an ordinary object—bicycle handlebars—and made them appear as bull horns when coupled with a bicycle seat (Bull’s Head, 1943).

Some artists, influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud, attempted to portray the inner workings of the mind in their artworks. This group of artists became known as the Surrealists and included artists such as Salvador Dalí (1904–89), René Magritte (1898–1967), and Joan Miró (1893–1983).

One of the most influential events in the history of art took place in Germany between the first and second world wars. A school of design called the Bauhaus—a name that would become a byword of modern design—established standards for architecture and design that would have a profound influence on the world of art. The Bauhaus made a bold attempt to reconcile industrial mass-manufacture with aesthetic form. Taking the view that form should follow function and should be true to the materials used, the faculty at the Bauhaus designed a curriculum that continues to influence many contemporary schools of art. After the school was closed by the Nazis in 1933, many of the Bauhaus’ faculty, including Josef Albers (1888–1976), a well-known painter, graphic artist, and designer, came to the United States and continued to teach. We can still recognize the Bauhaus influence in our contemporary society with its streamlined furnishings and buildings.

Abstraction

During World War II organized movements in art came to a virtual standstill. Art was produced, but attention was really on the war. Many artists did in fact serve in the military, and often art was designed to serve as propaganda in support of the war effort. When the war was over and Europe was recovering, a new center for the international art world emerged. The action had shifted to New York, and it would be at least another fifty years before the artistic centers in England, France, Italy, and Germany would regain something that approximated the prominence of New York.

During the 1950s the art scene in New York was dominated by the ideas and writings of critics such as Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg. These critics had a tremendous influence on the development of art styles. Greenberg chose to promote a particular view of art and was an advocate for artists who were further developing abstraction. Beginning in the 1940s, Abstract Expressionist artists followed Kandinsky’s dictum that art, like music, could be free from the limitations of pictorial subject matter. These artists aimed at the direct presentation of feeling with an emphasis on dramatic colors and sweeping brushstrokes. The Abstract Expressionist movement, which included the artists Willem de Kooning (1904–97), Lee Krasner (1908–84), and Franz Kline (1910–62), reached its pinnacle with the work of Jackson Pollock (1912–56). Pollock eventually abandoned even the use of his paintbrush and instead dripped his paint directly onto the canvas.

Abstract Expressionist works tended to fall into two types: action-paintings, which employed dramatic brushstrokes or Pollock’s innovative dripping technique, or color field paintings, which featured broad areas of color and simple, often geometric forms. Mark Rothko and Josef Albers are two well-known color field artists.

In response to the non-objective style of Abstract Expressionism, other artists began to return to naturalism, producing works that, though they may appear in some ways similar to those of the abstractionists, focused on ordinary consumer objects. Jasper Johns (1930–) created a series of works that featured common things such as flags, numbers, maps, and letters. Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008) created sculptures from the castoff objects he found around him to create what he called “combines.” He hung his own bedclothes on the wall like a canvas and painted them [Bed (1955)], and one of his most famous works, Monogram (1959), consists of numerous “found” items, including a stuffed goat, a tire, a police barrier, the heel of a shoe, a tennis ball, and paint. This use of everyday objects in artistic works had a decided influence on the next big movement in art—Pop Art.

Robert Rauschenberg’s Monogram.

Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism

1960s pop Art, with its incorporation of images of mass culture, violated the traditional unspoken rules regarding what was appropriate subject matter for art. Andy Warhol (1928–87), the icon of pop art, achieved the kind of popularity usually reserved for rock stars. His soup cans, Brillo boxes, and images of movie stars were created with a factory-like silkscreen approach that he used to mock the art world. Roy Lichtenstein (1923–97), another pop artist, adopted the imagery of comic books and recreated them on such a large scale that the pattern of dots used to print them was made massive. Robert Indiana (1928–) used stencils that had been originally used to produce commercial signs to create his own artistic messages.

Minimalism sought to reduce art to its barest essentials, emphasizing simplification of form and often featuring monochromatic palettes. The invention of acrylic paint and the airbrush enabled Minimalist painters to achieve very precise outlines, which resulted in the term “hard-edge painting.” The artist who is best known for these large, entirely non-objective paintings is Frank Stella (1936–). The sculptors David Smith (1906–65), who used stainless steel, and Dan Flavin (1933–96), who used neon tubing, also created large pieces that reflected this abstract minimalist sensibility.

A Pop-inspired group of artists began to produce works that aimed to create a kind of super-realism or what came to be called Photorealism. In these works, a hyper-real quality results from the depiction of the subject matter in sharp focus, as in a photograph. This technique offered a clear contrast to the use of sfumato, developed in the Renaissance, which had added a haziness to the contour of painted objects. Photorealist artists Chuck Close (1940–), with his portraits, and Duane Hanson (1925–1996), with his witty sculptures of ordinary people, hearkened back to the Realism promoted by Gustave Courbet.

Earthworks, Installations, and Performance

One intriguing development in the contemporary art world since the 1970s is that art is no longer limited to gallery or museum spaces, and many important works of art are departures from traditional formats. Some artists have taken their work to a new scale and have developed their artworks in new venues, often out of doors. In this way, artists also challenge conventional ideas about art and its function. An artist known by the single name Christo (1935–), working together with his partner Jeanne-Claude (1935–2009), is responsible for creating much interest in these kinds of Earthworks. Beginning in Europe, Christo startled the world with the idea that landscape or architecture is something that can be packaged. He wrapped several well-known monuments in fabric, built a twenty-four mile long cloth fence in California, surrounded eleven Florida islands with pink plastic, and set up orange fabric gates on pathways throughout Central Park. These works, which require years and even decades of preparation, are as much about the process as they are about the finished product, and it is for this reason that Christo’s partner, Jeanne-Claude, played such an important role. While Christo designs the projects, Jeanne-Claude handled many of the logistical details that must be addressed to carry out the work. Their partnership raises important questions about the concept of the individual genius of the artist and how he or she works. Other artists associated with Earthworks are Michael Heizer (1944–) and Robert Smithson (1938–73).

The growth of Performance Art is another development that allows artistic expression to transcend traditional boundaries. Some artists work in conventional media such as photography and painting, as well as in performance art. Performance art is a combination of theater and art in which the artists themselves become the work. Such works exist in time, like music or theater, and are fleeting and transitory in nature. The point is to create a real event in which the audience can participate, but that does not result in a fixed, marketable artwork for a museum or living room wall. Sometimes performance art is socially conscious in its intent. An example is the Guerrilla Girls, a group of New York-based artists who began to work together in 1985. The individual identities of the artists in this all-female group are kept anonymous at all times. The artists even wear gorilla masks when they appear in public to conceal their identities. The artists use guerrilla-warfare tactics, such as pasting up posters and flyers, as well as giving public speeches, to challenge what they see as an art world dominated by white men.

Postmodernist art arose in reaction to the modernist styles, and not surprisingly, it takes many forms across a variety of media. Postmodern works tend to reintroduce traditional elements or to exaggerate modernist techniques by using them to the extreme. Postmodern works often return to earlier styles, periods, and references and often question the mores and beliefs of contemporary society. A leading proponent of Postmodernism in architecture is Philip Johnson (1906–2005), who at one time was known as one of the leading modern architects of the International Style. For decades, architecture had largely been dominated by the Bauhaus idea of form following function, and sleek towers of steel sheathed in glass were the standard for large buildings. But, in 1970, Johnson suggested the radical idea that one of the functions of art was decoration, and with the AT&T (now Sony) Building (1984), he added a finial to the top of the standard office tower.

Today, artists around the world work in an endless variety of media and styles. One can no longer say that any particular city, country, or even continent is the “center” of the art world. The next section of this guide provides a brief overview of “nonwestern” art, but we should note that the categories of Western and nonwestern in the world of contemporary art are becoming obsolete with the emergence of transnational artists in an increasingly mobile and interconnected world.

The terracotta army was buried with the First Emperor of Qin.

Brief Overview of Nonwestern Art

The story of art that we have been studying thus far has been a traditional one and has been told over and over again by countless writers since Giorgio Vasari’s time. It chronicles a history of Western European ideas that grew out of the concepts put forth by early Greek philosophers. These ideas experienced a revival during the Renaissance and were further refined in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Atomic power, the increasing pace of technological inventions, and the electronic age further expanded and changed the realm of art in the twentieth century.

We should keep in mind that the history we have chronicled thus far, though valuable, has clear limitations. In recent decades, art history, like many other academic disciplines, has been challenged to include artists and works that were previously marginalized. The influence of feminist critics in particular has led to major revisions, and there has also been an increasing inclusion of the histories of art of other cultures. At this point, we will look at the arts of Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and the art of Islam throughout the world. The art histories of these cultures are increasingly central to the development of the discipline of art history. Of course, this brief survey covers only a tiny fraction of the rich world of art beyond the boundaries of the Western world. The works considered here might be categorized as “traditional”; contemporary art from Asia and Africa, thoroughly immersed in the global art scene, is beyond the scope of this discussion, for example. Illustrations of the works of art discussed here can be found through basic internet searches and in standard art historical textbooks.

Asian Art

CHINESE ART

Civilization and art have been present in China for thousands of years, and some archaeological finds in China rival those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Remains of painted wares have been found that date back to the fourth millennium BCE. Perhaps the most famous work of ancient Chinese art is the two-thousand-mile-long Great Wall, constructed over the course of centuries. Of course this wall, now considered an enduring work of art and admired both for its engineering and aesthetic appeal, originally had a utilitarian function. This is an example of how meaning and function can change over time. In fact, many of the works we will examine here were created for a specific purpose but are now seen as works of art in a different context.

The dynasties or kingdoms that ruled for long periods of time had an impact on the history of art in China. In many cases, these rulers left elaborate tombs that contained many objects that have become great treasures of art. One of the most amazing works from the early period of Chinese art history is the monument to the first emperor to unite the kingdom—the Emperor of Qin (c. 210 BCE). He had a full army of soldiers and their equipment, including their horses, created life-size in clay and buried as part of his tomb. The technical ability demonstrated in these sculptures and the life-like detail of the soldiers and their horses are quite astonishing. The dynasties succeeding Qin built grand walled cities with huge palaces and tombs. These dynasties are noted for bronze statues and ceremonial vessels. These vessels are covered with intricate designs, and the methods of casting are still not completely understood.

The introduction of Buddhism from India had a profound effect on Chinese arts and culture. During the reign of the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), often referred to as China’s Golden Age, artists produced some of the greatest works of ceramic sculpture ever made. Traditional Chinese art also placed great value on ink drawings. Many scrolls are meant for contemplation, and this contemplative aspect is a feature often associated with Asian art. Chinese traditions in writing, painting, and sculpture were maintained over the centuries. With the communist revolution that established the People’s Republic of China in 1949, art became suffused with political ideas and was often an instrument of propaganda. However, since the late 1970s, Chinese art has gradually become less political.

INDIAN ART

India is an extremely diverse nation in which more than 1600 different languages and dialects are currently spoken, and India is home to a variety of religious and cultural traditions. India’s artistic traditions are among the oldest in the world, and here we will only be able to touch on one or two aspects of India’s rich artistic heritage. The influence of Buddhist traditions is strong, of course, but what often astonishes people unfamiliar with the art of India is the influence of Greek art on the classical images of Buddha. India has ruins of great early civilizations that rival those of Egypt and Mesoamerica, and the sensuous style of Indian sculptures has had an enduring impact on art over the centuries. Much Indian art reflects the tremendous influence of Hinduism. This religion, with its many gods and goddesses, gave rise to a lovely, lively, and sinuous style. Images of Shiva, who dances gracefully with his multiple arms, are particularly striking.

JAPANESE ART

The island kingdom of Japan, though tiny in size, has had a great influence on the international art world. Japan was closed to the West for the majority of its history, and this allowed Japanese art to remain relatively consistent and traditional. As with China, the history of Japan is one of succeeding dynasties, with each one leaving its mark in a series of succeeding styles. Also, as with China, Buddhism was imported to Japan and became an important focus in the traditional arts. The strength of Japan’s artistic traditions remained even when the country became more open to Western cultures. During the rise of the Impressionist movement in Europe, Japan sent a group of artists to study in France. These artists returned to Japan and introduced the ideas they had encountered in the West, and so, for a short time at the end of the nineteenth century, there was group of artists in Japan who used linear perspective and the colors and subjects of Impressionism. However, what is noteworthy is that the Japanese soon rejected these ideas and returned to the isometric perspective and flat areas of color favored by Japanese traditions. Although Japanese artists created excellent works in painting, architecture, crafts, and sculpture, it is for their printmaking that Japanese artists are best known in the Western world. Japanese prints had a profound influence on Western art, as French artists began to imitate the prints that they began to collect in the late nineteenth century. The flat colors and overhead viewpoint of these prints were adopted by many French artists during this period.

African and Oceanic Art

Some of the historic traditions of African art have already been discussed in our survey of Western art. As a result of the relationships between Egypt and the Mediterranean world, the ancient arts of northern Africa are often incorporated into the history of Western art. Usually the art of sub-Saharan Africa is treated separately from that of northern Africa because of the regions’ very different histories. A close look at all areas of the continent reveals that impressive art traditions emerged in west, central, east, and southern Africa quite early. Some of the oldest examples are cave paintings in what is now Namibia, painted in c. 23,000 BCE, that are thought to predate any known European paintings. In West Africa, the Nok civilization emerged in c. 500 BCE. Located in what is present-day Nigeria, this impressive civilization produced fantastically life-like terracotta sculptures, many of which were probably portraits of political and religious leaders. It is possible that the early Nok civilization had an influence on later cultural groups such as the Yoruba.

Fang mask used for the ngil ceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers. Wood, Gabon, nineteenth century.

Another important historical tradition from Nigeria relates to the Benin Kingdom (founded c. 900). Much of the remaining art from the Benin Kingdom was produced in association with a rich life at the royal court. Cast bronze portrait heads were intended for ancestral altars, and a variety of objects were made to reinforce the tremendous power of the oba, or Benin king. Countless treasures from the Benin Kingdom were destroyed or confiscated by the British in the 1897 raid on the royal palace. As a result, many more of these objects from historic Benin can be found in museums in Europe and the United States than in Nigeria.

While art objects in a variety of media have been created by many different African cultural groups, our study of them has been limited in many cases by the lack of necessary conditions for preservation. While there are some objects in metal and clay, the use of fiber and wood, which are quite perishable, has resulted in relatively few artifacts being preserved. Unfortunately, much African art was also destroyed by early European traders and colonial settlers on the continent. Westerners often viewed much of what they found in Africa as dangerous and threatening to the colonial pursuit, perceiving artworks as pagan symbols that should be destroyed rather than preserved. Hence, a wealth of cultural artifacts has been lost. The objects that were preserved were often collected as archaeological artifacts and, in most cases, important contextual information was lost. It is only relatively recently that art historians have begun to explore the rich variety of artworks and aesthetic systems of African cultures. In many cases, traditional African arts challenge the Western concept of art for art’s sake—functional baskets, ceramics, and textiles, for example, are some of the most prized material objects for many African cultural groups.

When we look at African art in a museum, a great deal of contextual information that is crucial to our understanding of the object is lost. Many African cultural groups, such as the Dan and the Bwa, are well-known for their impressive masks. Masks, though, are not meant to be seen in isolation as they are typically displayed when in art museums. Instead, masks are usually integrated into performance, coupled with a full-body costume and accompanied by music, dance, jokes, festivities, and a great meal shared with friends and family. It is difficult, of course, to recreate all of this in a museum context!

Similar issues occur in relation to the arts of Oceania. Oceania is the collective name for the thousands of islands that constitute Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. As is the case with Africa, many perishable objects dating back for centuries have been lost to us due to the use of fragile materials in a sometimes hostile climate. In Polynesia, tattooing and other body arts were important ways of expressing social stature. Clearly these art forms are lost with the death of the tattooed person and were preserved only through engravings made by visitors to the islands prior to the invention of photography.

An image of the Dome of the Rock from Phillip Baldensperger’s “The Immovable East: Studies of the People and Customs of Palestine,” published in 1913.

Some of the most important art traditions of the Asmat cultural group of Melanesia relate to warfare. Traditionally the Asmat engaged in headhunting practices, but these traditions have died out. Enormous carved wooden shields decorated with beautiful black, red, and white abstract patterns were traditionally used for protection in raids among groups throughout the area; today these shields are seen as cultural symbols, but they no longer serve the same function in war.

Carved masks were a central part of Melanesian cultures. In many cases, these masks were used in ceremonies that involved summoning the spirits of ancestors to honor the dead. As is the case with African art traditions, much is lost when these objects are viewed in museum collections.

Rich traditions continue to develop throughout Oceania today, especially as groups such as the Maori of New Zealand seek cultural renewal by reviving old traditions in a new context. Many people from traditional cultural groups that have been threatened by colonization recognize that art offers vibrant possibilities for expressing and reinforcing cultural identity.

Islamic Art

Today, Islam is a major religion that is not limited to any one region of the world. However, historically Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula following the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). The revelations of Muhammad are recorded in Islam’s holy book, the Koran. This text plays a central role in the practice of Islam, and some of the most valued art objects are beautifully produced copies of the Koran or containers that hold the sacred text. Following the Koran’s scriptures, Islamic art is largely non-figurative. Abstract or calligraphic decoration can be found on most Islamic art objects, including sacred architecture which has a long history in the Islamic tradition. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (687–692) is one of the oldest examples of Islamic architecture. Its position in Jerusalem marks the presence of Islam in a city that is also sacred to Jews and Christians. The act of prayer is central to the practice of Islam, and the mosque, with its qibla wall facing toward Mecca, emerged as a site for communal prayer. Mosque architecture can be found in a variety of forms throughout the world today.

The Americas

For many years art historians classified much of the art of North and South America as products of simple craftsmanship. These artifacts were not truly considered works of art and therefore were kept solely in archeological and anthropological museums. However, renewed interest and new studies of these works have added considerably to our understanding and appreciation of the art of the first Americans, and objects from these cultures are becoming more and more common in the collections of art museums. Great civilizations grew and flourished in the Americas, including the Olmec, Toltec, Maya, Inca, and Aztec. Great pyramids, rivaling those of Egypt, rose as the central features of large cities, of which the Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico is one of the best known. The decorative carvings on the Mayan ruins continue to amaze us, and in addition to architectural marvels, statues in clay and stone, as well as fine textiles and jewelry, remain as reminders of the glories of these civilizations.

While there is evidence of early people in many areas of present-day Canada and the United States dating back nearly 12,000 years, several of the conditions that we identified earlier as being necessary for preservation were not present. As a result, the majority of artifacts from these cultures are only from the last two thousand years. During the later centuries of the prehistoric period, the Native Americans of the Southwest demonstrated remarkable architectural skills in the building of pueblo complexes. These dwellings often consisted of well over a hundred rooms laid out in multiple stories.

Elements of Art

Formal Qualities of Art

While it is crucial to examine any given work of art in its historical context in order to arrive at an understanding of its meaning, it is also important to focus intently on the formal qualities or the basic visual components of a work of art. These include line, shape, form, space, color, and texture, among other things. Formal analysis requires careful observation and description, often using the special vocabulary of art.

LINE

Line is the most basic of art elements. Any kind of mark-making tool—a finger, pencil, paint, etc.—can be used to create a line on a surface. The strict definition of a line is the path of a point moving through space. But beyond this technical definition, lines have a variety of characteristics such as length, width, and direction. Lines may appear hard or soft, bold or indistinct, uniform or varying in width. Sometimes lines are not solid but consist of a series of interrupted dots or lines that the eye connects to create an implied line. Think of prints in the sand or snow that imply the path of a person or animal. Sometimes we see the edges of objects as lines. The corners of rooms, the edges of doors, and the line where two colors meet all provide examples of how edges may be seen as lines.

Artists use lines to express ideas or feelings visually. Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static feeling. Vertical lines cause the eye to move upward. Medieval churches were created with very high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of spiritual awe. Horizontal lines, such as the line of the horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility while curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity. Though the use of lines is perhaps most essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artwork in some way.

SHAPE AND FORM

Shape and form are two elements of art that are closely related to one another. Shape is what defines the two-dimensional area of an object, whereas forms are objects that are three-dimensional, having length, width, and depth. For example, a square is a shape, but a cube is a form. A triangle is a shape; a pyramid or a cone is a form. When one draws an apple that in nature is a form, one draws a shape that represents the apple. If one creates an apple out of clay, that clay apple is a form. In a two-dimensional artwork, an artist may try to create the illusion of form through the use of shading, foreshortening, perspective, and other techniques.

Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/spheres and squares/cubes. These geometric shapes and forms can be defined mathematically and are precise and regular. Some shapes and forms are described as being “organic” since living things tend to be freeform and irregular in shape or form. A geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to express movement and rhythm. Space is an element of art related to the organization of objects and the areas around them. The objects, shapes, or forms in an artwork occupy what is termed positive space. Sometimes these objects, shapes, or forms may be called the figure. The area around these objects, shapes, or forms represents negative space. In three-dimensional forms, negative space may surround the forms or may be created as a result of open spaces within the forms. Three-dimensional artworks include, among other forms, architecture, ceramic objects, and sculpture. The two primary types of sculpture are freestanding, or fully in the round, and relief, meaning that the sculpture projects from a surface or background of which it is a part. Such sculptures may be in high relief—projecting boldly from the surface—or bas (low) relief—projecting only slightly from the surface of the sculpture.

Pietro Perugino’s usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

PERSPECTIVE

The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is another important use of space in two-dimensional artworks. There are many effective techniques that artists can use to create an illusion of three-dimensionality. They may use shading and highlighting on the contours—the visible borders—of objects to replicate the manner in which light shining on objects lends those objects a sense of volume and space. An artist can also create a sense of depth in an artwork by placing objects or figures lower on the picture plane to make them appear closer to the viewer. Or, one can do the reverse and place objects and figures higher on the plane to make them appear farther away from the viewer. Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to create a sense of perspective—larger objects will appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects. An artist can also have closer objects overlap objects that are farther away to indicate depth and distance. Moreover, the artist can make objects appear closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail than objects that are farther away—replicating the manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more detail in objects that are nearer to us.

Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric perspective, is a technique that takes into account the ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change the appearance of things when they are viewed from a distance. When an artist uses this technique, objects that are farther away will appear lighter and more neutral in color and will lack contrast of color or value.

Frequently, when we think of perspective, we think of the mathematical techniques that were developed during the Renaissance which can be used to create the illusion of space. Such techniques create what is called linear perspective because this perspective is founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines recede into the distance, they appear to converge and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon. We may, for example, notice this effect when viewing highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch into the distance. In employing linear perspective, the artist establishes one or more vanishing points on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork. Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise and extremely realistic depiction of interior and exterior scenes. Thus, in drawing a black and white checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines—which we know are also parallel in reality—appear to converge or come together in a systematic way as they recede toward the back wall of the interior.

COLOR

Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a compelling element in art. hue is simply the name of the color. There are three primary colors—red, blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are produced. Secondary colors are formed from the mixture of two primary colors: red and yellow make orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red make violet. There are six tertiary colors, made by combining a primary and an adjacent secondary color: red and violet make red-violet; violet and blue make violet-blue; blue and green make blue-green; green and yellow make yellow-green; yellow and orange make yellow-orange; orange and red make red-orange. The organization of these hues into a visual scheme, known as the color wheel, dates from the eighteenth century, though the underlying concepts were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century. The color wheel is a useful tool for predicting the results of mixing hues.

Two important variables affecting color are the amount of light that is reflected and the purity of the color. The term “value” is often used when discussing the lightness or darkness of a color or of gray. Values in an artwork may be primarily dark or primarily light or may be contrasting from dark to light. The artist’s use of value contributes to the expressive quality of the artwork. In mixing colors, artists create a lighter hue by adding white to the color. Adding white to red, for example, makes a lighter red or pink. Artists create darker hues by adding black to the color. Adding black to red, for example, makes a dark red. A few words about black and white are necessary at this point. Black and white are not hues; they are called neutrals. When mixing black and white, artists can create a continuum of grays.

Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color. The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are generally considered to be the most intense colors. If pure colors are mixed, they become less intense. Adding black or gray to a color will reduce its intensity. Adding a color to its complement lowers the intensity of the color, making it more dull or neutral in tone. Equal parts of two complements, such as red and green, will produce a dull, muddy brown tone.

Artists often use specific color schemes to produce particular visual or emotional effects. In the nineteenth century, scientists discovered the relativity of color; they determined that a given shade of red will look brighter or darker, more or less intense, depending on what other (similar or contrasting) colors are placed next to it. Thus, colors do not have a fixed or immutable character or value.

In discussing art and color, we often speak of warm colors and cool colors. These color associations are culturally constructed and are not absolute. In the context of Western art, warm colors include red, orange, and yellow and are referred to as such because we associate them with the warmth of the sun, the heat of a roaring fire, or the dry grass of a late summer day. Cool colors—green, blue, and violet—remind us of cool forests, mountain lakes, and snow. Artists often use warm and cool colors to create space in artworks. Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede. By employing contrasts of warm and cool colors, artists can create a sense of movement as the viewer’s eyes move over the surface of the artwork.

Color may be local, arbitrary, or optical. Local color refers to the “true” color of an object or area as seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects of distance or reflections from other objects. For instance, in a work using local color, a grassy field would be green despite the fact that it may, in reality, appear bluish from a distance. Optical color refers to the effect that special lighting has on the color of objects. Consider how colors change in moonlight, at daybreak, in candlelight, or in artificial lighting. Artists who use arbitrary color choose colors for their emotional or aesthetic impact. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, artists have come to use arbitrary color schemes more and more often.

TEXTURE

Texture refers to how things feel or how we think they would feel if touched. From a young age we explore the surfaces of things and store away these tactile experiences in our memory. When we see new objects or artworks, we call upon our previous experiences to determine the quality of the surface texture. In the context of art, we make reference to two kinds of texture: actual and visual. Some artists use actual textures in their art. For example, a ceramic artist may create an actual texture on the surface of a pot or plate. In collages, assemblages, or masks, artists may use yarn, rope, shiny paper, shells, and other natural or manufactured materials to create actual textural effects. Artists who work in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, wood, metal, or some other substance.

Artists who work in two-dimensional media create visual texture—an illusion of a textured surface—in their artwork. For example, an artist may wish to simulate the actual texture of a straw hat, a glass vase, or an orange. Textures may be created by using patterns of lines or shapes that suggest texture. An artist can use the contrast of light and dark on a surface to create a texture that appears rough. Conversely, the absence of such a contrast will evoke a smooth texture. Shiny surfaces appear to reflect light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull. In addition to using the aforementioned techniques to create visual texture, painters can create actual texture with their brushstrokes.

COMPOSITION

Composition refers to the artist’s organization of the elements of art, whether in two- or three-dimensional works. When speaking of a painting, the composition refers to the arrangement of these elements on the picture plane. In the case of architecture, composition is a word used to describe the organization of these elements in space.

Rhythm is the principle that we associate with movement or pattern. Artists create a sense of movement or rhythm in their artwork through the repetition of elements such as line, shape, color, and texture. The rhythm of a composition can cause the viewer’s eye to move rhythmically across and around the composition. Some rhythms flow smoothly, while others are more jarring. The artist directs the movement of our eye through the use of repeated elements.

Motif and pattern are two aspects of repetition. A motif is a single element of a pattern. For example, in a quilt design, one or more motifs are repeated to create an overall pattern. A pattern involves the repetition of certain elements—color or line—or motifs within a work of art. Many patterns feature regular repetition. Shapes or motifs may be repeated in a number of ways to create regular patterns. Some kind of grid system will underlie a regular pattern. Checkerboards offer an example of a regular pattern.

Balance refers to the equal distribution of visual weight in a work of art. There are a number of techniques that artists use to create balance. The easiest to comprehend is symmetrical balance—a balance achieved when elements of the composition are repeated exactly on both sides of the central axis. If you fold a paper in half vertically and one side of the centerfold is a mirror image of the other side of the centerfold, then you have an example of symmetrical balance. Many formal styles of architecture make use of symmetry with columns, wings, and windows arrayed equally on either side of the central entrance. Artworks in which the central axis is horizontal and equal visual weight is placed above and below that axis also exhibit symmetrical balance. To avoid the rigidity and monotony that may accompany a symmetrical composition, many artists employ approximate symmetry. In this kind of balance, shapes or objects are slightly varied on either side of the central axis. The artist may also include variations in the color, detail, or position of the shapes to achieve this effect.

Asymmetrical Balance is a visual balance that is achieved through the organization of unlike objects. Even though asymmetrical balance may appear to be more informal than symmetrical balance, it is actually a more complex compositional task. There are several ways that asymmetrical balance can be achieved. The first is by the position of objects. Think of two people of unequal weight on a seesaw. To maintain a balance, the lighter person must sit far out on the end of the seesaw while the heavier person must sit close to the fulcrum. Similarly, an artist may create balance by placing the heavier, more solid object close to the center of the artwork while placing smaller objects farther away from the center.

Contrast of color, value, shape, size, line, or texture creates interest to the eye. An element that contrasts with the rest of a composition will create a focal point where the eye tends to rest. This focal point appears more dominant, more important than other parts of the composition. In this way, the artist may guide the viewer to an understanding of meaning.

Proportion refers to the size relationships among the parts of a composition. Our sense of proportion is based upon our human scale. Scale refers to the dimensional relation of the parts of a work to the work in its entirety, and can refer to the overall size of an artwork. Size attracts our interest. The vast scale of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel creates a sense of awe. The detail of a tiny painting or of illuminations in medieval manuscripts intrigues us. Artists consider the purpose and place of their art when determining the appropriate scale for the work.

Scale also refers to the relative size of elements within the artwork. In a naturalistic work, we expect that the relative sizes of the objects depicted will appear as they actually are in life. In some cases, artists intentionally make one person or object in their composition larger to draw our attention to that person or object.

When representing the human face and figure realistically, artists strive to use accurate proportions. The standards for the relationship of the various parts of the human face and body were established nearly 2500 years ago during the Classical Period of Greek sculpture. The Greeks believed that the human figure was the measure of all things. As a consequence, all structures were designed in proportions relative to human proportions, and specific rules were established. For example, the human figure was determined to be seven and one-half heads high. The features of the human face could be correctly placed according to these rules: the corners of the eyes fall on a line halfway between the chin and the top of the head, the bottom of the nose falls halfway between the chin and the corners of the eyes, and the bottom of the lips falls halfway between the chin and the bottom of the nose. However, many artists at different times have altered these proportions to reflect changing ideals of beauty. At other times, artists have exaggerated or distorted proportions for an expressive effect.

To truly understand how artists manipulate the elements of art and the principles of composition, it is necessary to examine a great many artworks and to analyze how artists create meaning in their artwork through skillful choices and the application of these artistic concepts. Students should keep in mind that many of the elements discussed in the principles of composition section of this guide are more often found in traditional works than in modern artworks. The rejection of notions such as unity and balance is often the very essence of much modern art.

Processes and Techniques

Two-dimensional art processes and techniques are those that are created on a flat plane. They have height and width, but not significant depth. These include drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media. Artworks that have depth as well as height and width and that exist in space are three-dimensional. This category includes sculpture, other works in mixed media, and environmental art.

Drawing

Drawing is arguably the most basic of art processes. Most of us have been drawing since we could hold some tool and make marks on a surface. The most common drawing media are pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pens. Artists can choose from a variety of surfaces upon which to draw. Early artists used walls of rock, and though some artists today continue to draw on walls, most use some kind of paper—from the white paper of common sketchbooks to a wide variety of manufactured and handmade papers. Papers may be smooth or rough, white or in a wide range of colors. Drawing tools may be black, colored, or white.

Drawing is primarily based on the use of line. Lines created by drawing media can vary dramatically in quality. Hard pencils will make thin, light lines while soft pencils will make thicker lines that may vary considerably in value from lighter to very dark. Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used will show through in places where the strokes are applied lightly. Each drawing tool or medium has its own unique qualities, and experimenting with a variety of drawing media is a good way to gain an understanding of their similarities and differences.

With drawing pencils or charcoals, a change in pressure will cause a change in value. More pressure creates darker values; lighter pressure creates lighter values. Shading can also be used to change values. Artists use the techniques of hatching and crosshatching to shade objects and create an illusion of three-dimensionality. Hatching consists of placing lines closely side by side. Crosshatching is a process in which lines are crisscrossed to create shading. Many drawing media can be blended to change their value and enhance shading. Another technique for shading is stippling. With this technique, the artist creates different values by making a pattern of dots. The distance between the dots determines how dark the shading will be—the more densely clustered the dots, the darker the shading.

When an artist uses ink as a drawing medium, the ink can be thinned to create a wash of lighter value in which the paper shows through to lighten the effect. Undiluted ink is opaque; it is not transparent, and it completely covers the underlying paper. But water can be added to make the ink translucent.

Color may be introduced into a drawing with the use of pastels or colored pencils. The same techniques used with black media are used with colored media. The artist using color must consider the effects of color and line in an artwork. Colored pastels became popular in the 1700s. These soft sticks of color can be readily blended to create delicate tints and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture. The major drawback of pastels is that they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be cared for quite gently. Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing. Colored pencils are more durable than pastels, but like pastels, they may be layered to create blended colors.

This engraving, titled Veronica, by Albrecht Dürer features hatching (e.g., background) and cross-hatching in many darker areas.

Printmaking

Printmaking refers to a group of mechanically aided two-dimensional processes that permit the production of multiple original artworks. The principal printmaking processes include relief prints, intaglio prints, lithographs, and screen prints. All of these processes use some sort of printing plate (a “matrix”) on which an image is created. Ink is applied to the plate, and the image is transferred to paper or another material.

In relief printmaking, the artist cuts away parts from the surface of the plate. The matrix may be made of wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material, and a number of tools, including woodcarving or linoleum knives and gouges, can be used for cutting its surface. Once the plate has been cut, the remaining parts will stand out in relief. The relief sections may range from thin lines to broad fields, and it is these areas, when they are inked, that will produce the image. Wherever part of the plate is removed, the original color of the paper being printed upon remains. Ink is rolled over the surface of the plate with a brayer, and paper is placed over the inked plate. The plate and paper are then put into a press or rubbed with a burnisher to force the ink onto the paper.

Intaglio printmaking works in the opposite manner from relief printmaking. In the intaglio process, lines are incised on the wood or soft metal plate. Line is an essential element in the intaglio process. Carving tools are used to cut lines into the surface of the plate in a process called engraving. Another intaglio process is etching. In this process, the design is incised through a layer of wax or varnish applied to the surface of a metal plate. After the incising, the plate is immersed in acid, which etches, or eats away, the exposed metal. Leaving the plate in the acid for a shorter time will make faint lines in the plate, while leaving the plate in for a longer time will make deeper grooves. After the plate is etched, the remaining wax or varnish is removed, and ink is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate. Then, the ink on the surface of the plate is wiped off, and finally, paper is placed on the plate, and it is passed through a heavy press. The paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to the paper. In an etching, the printing process causes the printed areas to actually rise above the surface of the paper, giving a degree of dimension to the print.

Lithography is a process in which the image is drawn with a waxy pencil or crayon directly on a plate, which can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum. The greasy image is hardened, and the plate is saturated with water. Then, ink is applied. The ink adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water. The image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved through a press. Lithography can be a complex and demanding process, but in contrast to woodcut and engraving, it does not require special professional training; anyone who can draw can make a lithograph.

Screen prints are familiar to most of us since this is the process used to print most T-shirts. In the silk-screening process, a photograph or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric that has been stretched onto a frame. The image serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the permeable fabric. When ink is forced through the fabric using a squeegee, at those areas not blocked by the stenciling, the image is transferred to the paper or fabric beneath.

Because multiple originals can be made through printmaking processes, the cost of an individual print is considerably less than that of a painting. Printmaking techniques have been used in the print industry for illustrating newspapers and books since the development of the printing press in the fifteenth century.

Painting

Painting encompasses a wide variety of media and techniques. Paint is usually composed of three different materials: pigments, binders, and solvents. Pigments are finely ground materials that may be natural or synthetic. Natural pigments include clays, gemstones, and minerals, as well as plant and insect materials that make color when powdered. These powdered pigments are mixed with a binder that holds the grains of pigment together and allows the paint to adhere to a surface. Egg yolks, linseed oil, and wax can all be used as binders. A solvent such as water or oil can be added to change the consistency of the paint or alter its drying time.

As with drawing, painters can apply the media to a variety of surfaces such as boards, paper, canvas, and plaster walls. Paint can be applied to a surface with many different tools. We usually think of paintbrushes as the tools used to apply paint, but fingers, sticks, palette knives, and anything else that an artist imagines will make the desired kind of applicator may be used.

One specialized technique of painting that has a long history is the fresco. The fresco technique is usually used to paint on walls or ceilings. In creating a fresco, the artist mixes pure powdered pigments with water and applies them to a wet plaster ground. The paint is permanently bound in the plaster, so the artist must plan carefully because he or she will not be able to make changes after the fact. This kind of fresco is termed buon fresco (“true” fresco). If an artist uses the technique called fresco secco, he or she will apply paints to dry rather than wet plaster. Frescoes have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and in many medieval and Renaissance churches. Diego Rivera, the famous Mexican muralist of the early twentieth century, used this technique for his murals in Mexico and the United States.

When we think of painting, oil painting usually comes to mind first. Oil paints were not widely used until the 1400s, and prior to that time, tempera was the most commonly used paint. Tempera is a water-based paint. Many of us remember using tempera paint in elementary school. Traditional tempera paint, which uses egg as a binder, has been used by fine artists throughout history. Tempera painting requires great skill, and there are limitations to this medium. Tempera colors dry quickly, and so they cannot be blended once they are applied to a surface. Tempera also has a narrow tonal range—colors are either light or dark—and it cannot achieve the close imitation of natural effects that oil paints can. Nonetheless, the positive qualities of tempera are evidenced by the many ancient tempera paintings that still retain their clear and brilliant colors.

Oil paints are much more versatile than tempera paints. Oil paints can be easily mixed, and they may be thinned to build up layers of delicate glazes—thin transparent or semi-transparent layers that are applied over another color to alter it slightly. The translucency of glazes permits, for instance, a crimson layer underneath to shine through a yellow layer on top and can thus create brilliant, luminous effects that are impossible to achieve with tempera. Oils can be applied thickly or in heavy lumps to make an impasto surface. Since oils dry slowly, it is possible for an artist to work on an oil painting over a long period of time—days or even weeks.

In ancient Egypt, grave markers were painted with wax-based paints called encaustic. With encaustic, colored molten wax is fused with the surface via the application of hot irons. The fact that Egyptian markers have survived through the ages indicates the durability of the encaustic medium. Some painters today have returned to this ancient, traditional process.

Gouache is a water-based opaque paint that is similar to school-quality tempera, but of higher quality. Gouache has more body and dries more slowly than watercolor. It is a good medium for creating bright colors and meticulous details and is often used for design and fine artwork.

The most common water-based paint is water-color. Watercolors are transparent, a quality that dictates the manner in which they are used. The white of the paper upon which the artist paints is a major factor in watercolor. White paint is rarely used in watercolors. Instead, to make tints, the artist adds more water to the paint. The lightest colors are applied first, and then the darker colors, working from background to foreground, from broad areas to areas of detail. Watercolor is not forgiving of mistakes, so watercolor artists must plan carefully and practice diligently.

A recent development in paint is acrylic paint. Made from synthetic materials, plastics, and polymers, acrylics were developed after World War II. Acrylics are very versatile. They do not require the slow, careful building-up of successive layers with long drying periods in between as do oils. Acrylics are, however, unable to achieve some of the subtleties of which oil paints are capable. For artists who have developed allergies to oil paint and turpentine, acrylics offer a valuable alternative.

Photography

Photography was developed during the mid-nineteenth century, and it soon became a very popular way to document likenesses of people and scenes. The development of photography had a decided impact on other genres of art. As the use of photography grew, painters at first felt pressured to compete with the camera by achieving a higher degree of realism. Ultimately, however, artists felt less of a need to confine themselves to naturalistic styles of painting and were encouraged to explore various forms of art that were entirely beyond the reach of photography. Although not originally considered an art form, photography has gradually assumed a legitimacy within the art world that has only grown in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The medium of photography is in constant flux as new technology becomes available. In addition to still photography, film and video art are also used as art forms.

Michelangelo’s Pieta is a freestanding sculpture.

Sculpture

Sculpture is created in four basic ways: carving, modeling, casting, and construction. We usually think of sculpture as being freestanding, like the Venus de Milo or Michelangelo’s Pieta, but some sculptures are attached to surfaces such as doors, sarcophagi, altars, or church walls. Such reliefs may be carved into the stone or wood of the structure itself, or they may be cast of metal and fixed to the surface of the structure. High-relief sculpture projects significantly from the carrier surface, while low-relief sculpture projects only slightly. Reliefs can only be seen from a limited range, whereas a freestanding sculpture can be seen from every angle.

Carving is a subtractive process in which some of the original material is removed. For example, a stone or wood sculpture can be made by chiseling and gouging away with chisels, hammers, and files to bring the artist’s imagined form into physical existence. The scale of carved sculptures can range considerably, from miniature figures that rest on the tip of a finger to monumental forms carved of living rock.

Modeling is an additive process. A soft, workable material like clay, wax, plaster, or papier-mâché is formed by hand. Amounts of these materials can be added to the surface, and the surface can be shaped and decorated by hand or with simple tools.

Sometimes an unfired clay or wax sculpture can become the basis for a cast form. In this process, the original form is encased in plaster. When the plaster hardens, it is removed from the original form and retained for use as a mold. The mold can then be filled and thus used to create one or more casts of the original object. Sculptures may be cast in plaster, metal, and more recently, synthetic materials like plastic or polyester resins.

Some sculpture is constructed using a variety of methods. Metal sculpture can be welded from sheet metal or bent from wire. Some artists use paper, board, or wood that is cut and glued, nailed, or joined together by some other means and then possibly painted. Sometimes found objects are combined to create a new sculpture.

Some sculptures can move or can have moving parts. For example, Alexander Calder (1898–1976) created mobiles with forms suspended by wire which can be moved by wind or air currents. Other artists have used a wide variety of motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, or other mechanical means to introduce movement to their sculptures.

Environmental art, also called Earthworks, is a newer category of art form that first emerged in the 1960s, and many works that fit in this category could be classified as sculpture. Environmental art is usually large in scale, is constructed on-site, and is usually not permanent. Environmental art occupies space that may be outside in the natural world or inside a gallery or museum. In either case, the artwork redefines the space in which it is installed. Sometimes, performance may be coupled with the actual installation, and often the viewer is, to some degree, drawn into and involved with the artwork. Often, an essential part of the work of environmental artists is the process of collaborating with the community and governmental agencies to gain approval for their proposed works. Environmental art is often designed to be impermanent or to change over time. Photographs provide us with a more long-lasting documentation of these projects that are often designed to be fleeting in nature.

Mixed Media

Mixed media is the name given to a category of artworks in which the artist uses several art media, sometimes in conjunction with found materials such as fabric, rope, broken dishes, newspaper, or children’s toys. Mixed media works can be either two- or three-dimensional. Collage is a kind of mixed media in which artists combine various materials such as photographs, unusual papers, theater tickets, and virtually any other materials that can be adhered to a surface. Artists will select materials for their texture, color, or other aesthetic properties or for their symbolic meaning. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque are credited with introducing this medium to the high-art sphere around 1912.

The artist Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008) is well known for his mixed media pieces that combine silkscreen images with paint. Some artists create assemblages using all found objects, both two- and three-dimensional, in their compositions. Joseph Cornell (1903–72) was a twentieth-century artist who filled open boxes with a variety of objects that visually created symbolic and metaphoric statements.

Among traditional and nonwestern cultural groups, masks, ceremonial costumes, and other objects often employ mixed media. Masks may be carved of wood and embellished with grasses, beads, and paint.

Performance

Performance art is art in which the artist engages in some kind of performance, sometimes involving the viewers. Like environmental art, performance art lacks the permanence of more traditional genres of art. Videos or photographs of the performance may be the only remaining documentation of the event. In our world of canned, sterile, and constantly repeated media spectacles, performance art offers a means for recovering unique, unrepeatable human experiences. Since performances cannot be sold as objects, this art form has also been viewed by many as an escape from the increasing commercialization of art. True to the inventiveness of the artistic spirit, artists continue to explore new ideas, new materials, and new processes to express their unique perspectives and ideas. Such creative works continually challenge us to reconsider our own conceptions and definitions of the term “art.”

Craft and Folk Art

Craft, folk art, and popular art are all debated terms applied to a variety of art forms across cultures. In many cases, these terms are used to discuss art forms that are largely utilitarian. Through time and across cultures, people have often sought to make the objects they use more distinctive or beautiful. Consequently, pottery, jewelry, fibers, and glass and wooden objects have come to be recognized as art forms even though they may have a utilitarian purpose. A discussion of craft or folk art raises many questions about the nature of art and the aesthetic pursuit.

Pottery is a medium based upon the use of natural materials. Clay, dug from the ground, is the essential material. Many types of pots can be built using hands and simple tools. A basic pot can be formed from a ball of clay by punching the thumb into the center of the ball and pinching the clay between the thumb and fingers. Clay can also be rolled out into coils with the palm of the hand, and these coils can then be stacked up to form a clay vessel. Depending on the diameter of the coils, pots built in this way can be of enormous size or made on a tiny, dainty scale. Slab-built pots are made by rolling out clay and cutting carefully measured pieces, which are then assembled by applying liquid clay, called slip, to the edges that are to be joined.

The potter’s wheel was used in many ancient cultures and continues to be used by artists today. Using the potter’s wheel, the potter forms the basic shapes of the pot by manipulating the ball of clay as it turns on the wheel. When a potter uses a potter’s wheel to create pots, these pots are described as being “thrown.” Throwing allows for particularly thin-walled pots in a wide variety of shapes. Many potters combine hand-built and thrown forms to create beautiful objects that may or may not be functional.

Once the clay form has air-dried, the kiln, a specialized oven, is loaded and fired. In the kiln, all remaining moisture is driven out of the clay, and a chemical change takes place. The pots harden permanently. Then, glazes made of clay and minerals that provide color may be applied to the surface of the pots, and the pots are fired once again. The glazes melt, forming a glassy, waterproof surface on the pots that is both decorative and useful. The surface of a ceramic piece can also be decorated with applied clay designs or with decorations incised or carved into the surface of the piece.

Fiber arts include both woven and nonwoven materials. Weaving has a long history in the production of materials for clothing and other household needs. Some weaving techniques use a loom while others rely on simple braiding, knitting, or crochet. Quilting is another important craft form that is practiced by popular as well as fine artists.

Archaeological evidence indicates that glass was first made in the Middle East in the third millennium BCE. Glass is most often made of silica, which is derived from sand, flint, or quartz, combined with other raw materials. The introduction of additional minerals adds color. The development of glassblowing enabled the formation of glass vessels such as vases, drinking glasses, and perfume bottles. Stained glass became a dominant art form in the medieval period and was used to create the dramatic windows of cathedrals. By the end of the nineteenth century, stained glass had also become popular for lampshades and windows in residential homes.

Wood has been used to make functional objects such as furniture, boxes, boats, and homes. Northwest Coast Indians carve boxes and house boards with traditional designs. People all over the world have made wooden boats in varying practical and aesthetic forms. Today, artists make all kinds of objects from wood. Such objects may be functional, but first and foremost, they aim to be aesthetically pleasing. Functional objects like tables and chairs assume the status of art when the design is unique, the craftsmanship superb, and the visual effect beautiful. Sometimes these objects may no longer be functional, but become art for art’s sake.

Architecture

Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings. People in every culture and geographic area have designed shelters that meet their needs for protection. As people have imagined structures for a variety of communal and personal uses, they have developed various methods of construction to realize their ideas. Specialists in designing structures have become known as architects.

In early times, materials that could be found locally were used for building. Sticks, mud, grass, animal skins, ice, and wood were used in different climatic areas. Later, brick and stone were also used. An important architectural development was the use of the post-and-lintel construction technique in which a long stone or wooden beam is placed horizontally across upright posts. The famous Greek Parthenon is an example of post-and-lintel construction. This method is still commonly used today, with steel and wood being the favored materials.

Other key developments in architecture include the arch, the vault, and the dome. Each of these is a variation of the same concept that allowed for greater height and more interior open space inside a building. The Romans were great engineers, and the Colosseum in Rome provides a fine example of vaulted construction. The Romans developed concrete as a building material, which they used in building aqueducts, great baths, and other public works projects.

Flying buttresses at Bath Abbey, Bath, England.

In the medieval period, a skeletal building style developed that alternated between strong buttresses and thin walls with stained-glass windows, which admitted more light and color into the building. Many medieval cathedrals provide classic examples of this method. The addition of flying buttresses—external arches that counterbalanced the outward thrust of the high, vaulted ceilings—allowed for even more height and window openings.

During the Industrial Revolution, many new materials and processes for building were developed. In 1851 the Crystal Palace, so named because it consisted mainly of glass walls that were held in place by a framework of slim, iron rods, was built for the world’s fair in London. The Eiffel Tower in Paris, an amazing and beautiful monument, is primarily a framework of wrought iron.

Antonio Gaudi (1852–1926) created ingenious buildings of cut stone in Spain in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Without any flat surfaces or straight lines, Gaudi’s buildings are very organic in appearance. While we usually think of buildings as being more modular, having a regular and geometric shape, many architects have challenged this notion and have searched for aesthetically interesting designs and new materials to move beyond the idea of a building as merely being a box-shaped construction.

Steel and concrete have become the favored materials for large public, commercial, and multi-family housing while wood and brick continue to be commonly used for residential homes. While many buildings are designed by builders using more standardized plans, leading architects continue to explore new and exciting designs and materials.

Section I Summary

images Art history is an academic discipline that seeks to reconstruct the social, cultural, and economic contexts in which an artwork was created. The basic goal of this work is to arrive at an understanding of art and its meaning in its original historical context. Art historians rely on a variety of documents and sources in order to conduct formal and contextual analyses.

images The history of Western art is often studied chronologically. This study begins with early cave paintings in southeastern France and takes us to contemporary art all over the world.

images Early civilizations arose in Mesopotamia. Other ancient Western cultures important for their art traditions include Egypt and Nubia, and the civilizations of the Aegean Islands, Greece, and Rome. The artworks that have survived from ancient civilizations are those made of durable materials. Often these artworks were preserved in places that were relatively inaccessible.

images Tremendous shifts occurred in the art of the medieval period with the emergence of Christianity as a major religion and the Church as a powerful patron of the arts.

images The Church remained an important patron of art during the Renaissance and Baroque periods; at the same time, there was also a rise in secular artworks during these periods, in light of the Protestant Reformation and general societal and economic shifts throughout Europe.

images Major innovations of the Renaissance include the use of linear perspective and a move toward greater naturalism. Baroque art is generally distinct from Renaissance art because of its greater sense of movement and drama.

images The Rococo style of art was closely tied to the power of the French aristocracy prior to the Revolution of 1789. The Neoclassical movement may in part be seen as a reaction to the Rococo and a response to the political and social revolution. Romanticism, in turn, was a reaction to the classicizing tendencies of Neoclassical art. Romanticism sought to appeal to the emotions and the senses.

images Realism and Impressionism both emerged in the second half of the nineteenth century. Both movements were focused on everyday life as a subject matter, although Impressionism became increasingly concerned with ideas of visual perception.

images Other late nineteenth-century developments included Post-Impressionism and the Pre-Raphaelites.

images Modernism emerged in the early twentieth century. Important modernist movements include Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism.

images The Armory Show in New York (1913) marked a shift in the art world, as the United States became a new center of progressive artistic activity.

images Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism responded to a post-WWII industrial culture. Installations, performance, and Environmental Art all sought to challenge conventional ideas of art and its limitations.

images In the past, areas of nonwestern art were not incorporated in the chronological study of Western art; distinct regions of the world have often been studied separately. Today, though, many art historians are challenging this based on the realization that art throughout the world is interconnected, especially in terms of contemporary art. Art historians sometimes rely on different methods to understand nonwestern art.

images China, India, and Japan are among the major cultures of Asia. All three countries have ancient traditions and have produced art that relates to political power and religious practice.

images Ancient traditions can also be found in Africa. Often the arts of Africa and Oceania were created for very different functions from art in the Western traditions; consequently, there are tremendous formal differences as well.

images Islam is a major world religion that has produced much art. Most Islamic art is non-figurative.

images Ancient civilizations existed in the Americas as well. Archaeology is often used to learn about these civilizations and their art.

images In addition to understanding context, art historians seek to describe the formal qualities of artworks. Important terms used to discuss the formal qualities of an artwork include: line, shape and form, perspective, color, texture, and composition.

images Artists throughout time have worked in a variety of media, including drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, sculpture, mixed media, performance, craft and folk art, and architecture.

SECTION II

Artistic Innovations in the Ancient World

The Ancient Mediterranean World

Several ancient cultures developed in the broad region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, throughout Western Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe. The first cities were settled in Mesopotamia, in the Fertile Crescent between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Sumerians were the original civilization to flourish in the region, from c. 4000–2332 BCE. Egyptian culture was firmly established in the Nile Delta by c. 3500 BCE. The Cycladic islands, Crete, and the Greek mainland were settled by around 3200 BCE, and the Etruscans were active on the Italian peninsula from c. 700 BCE. These cultures brought a measure of stability and prosperity to the region, heralding the development of civilization and more highly organized societies than had existed in the prehistoric world.

Map showing the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Several ancient cultures developed in the broad region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, throughout Western Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe.

Technology

The ancient world of the Mediterranean region was characterized by major technological advancements, particularly in the realm of metalworking. The Bronze and Iron Ages (c. 3000–1100 BCE and 1200–550 BCE, respectively) brought with them innovations that led to more sophisticated tool making, which allowed for advances in construction and building techniques, as well as civil engineering and transportation. New technologies supporting agricultural production, such as harvesting tools and irrigation systems, provided stable food sources, while novel devices used in warfare and defensive actions powerfully affected the relationships between various societies in the region.

Trade

While some relationships within the Mediterranean were strained, trade and contact were important for the development of these ancient cultures. Advances in sailing and shipping brought communities into contact across an increasingly broad area. The Mediterranean Sea began to function as an ancient superhighway of sorts, allowing exchanges between a wide variety of diverse peoples. We will see some of the direct effects of these trade relations—particularly between the Egyptians and Greeks, as well as the Greeks and Romans—as we learn more about the art of these cultures.

Culture

Today our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean world is largely shaped by the cultural products left behind that serve as evidence. With increased settlement came more elaborate systems of religion, politics, and art, all of which find themselves expressed in the written and visual objects we study today. This section of the guide will focus on a handful of important cultural works that will help us better understand major innovations of the ancient world.

SELECTED WORK

FIRST SARCOPHAGUS OF TUTANKHAMUN, Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty

Egyptian Religious Beliefs

Ancient Egyptian society was completely dependent upon the Nile River. The river flooded each year, bringing rich soil from the highlands in the south to the banks of the Nile Valley and the Delta in the north. This silt supported the Egyptians’ extensive agricultural production, which in turn helped their society to thrive and grow. At the foundation of the Egyptian religious system was the idea that the king, or pharaoh, served as a mediator between the people and their gods. It was the pharaoh who assured continuity through the regular cycles of nature and the annual flooding of the Nile. In fact, the pharaoh was seen as a human embodiment of the gods and was believed to become a true god himself upon his death.

The dates typically used to discuss ancient Egyptian art are c. 3150–1000 BCE. Most of this art and architecture was focused on Egyptian religious practice, which was central to Egyptian culture. The Egyptians constructed many of their religious items—including tombs, temples, and statuary—out of durable stone, which has lasted through time. Other everyday objects, including Egyptian homes, were built of perishable materials and thus are no longer extant. This is generally seen as evidence of the greater value Egyptians placed on the afterlife than on this world. Most of what we know about Egyptian society comes from tombs and tomb decorations. Through them we see the ways that Egyptians were preoccupied in this life with insuring comfort in the next.

A ka statue of Pharoah Tutankhamun that was found in the entrance room of his tomb.

Photograph by Richard Seaman.

Small statue of Akhenaton. Under Akhenaton, Egyptian art changed radically, particularly in the area of figurative sculpture—images of Akhenaton are much more relaxed and realistic than those of the pharaohs who preceded him.

In their religious system, the Egyptians did not distinguish between the body and the soul. From birth, one was understood to have a parallel self, called the ka, which would continue to inhabit the body after death. In order to protect the individual once he/she had passed on to the other world, Egyptians buried their dead with all of the items they would need, including food and clothing, as well as servants (in the form of small statuettes) and treasure in the case of a person of very high social status, such as a pharaoh or high court official. In addition, the Egyptians developed elaborate mummification practices in order to maintain the deceased’s physical form into eternity and often provided the deceased with a ka statue—a sculptural replacement form should the mummy fail.

These central religious practices were consistent throughout the major phases of Egyptian art: the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150–2575 BCE), the Old Kingdom (c. 2575–2134 BCE), the Middle Kingdom (c.), and the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE 2040–1640 BCE). The only major disruption throughout this history was under the pharaoh Akhenaton (ruled 1353–35 BCE). Akhenaton, who was born Amenophis, converted from the native Egyptian religion to another religion honoring the god Aton.¹ He moved the capital of Egypt to Tell el-Amarna and built new temples and shrines to Aton. Under Akhenaton, Egyptian art changed radically, particularly in the area of figurative sculpture. Traditionally, pharaohs had been presented in a limited number of standard poses—generally standing or sitting with arms pressed tightly to the sides—and with bodies that conformed to an ideal canon of proportions. In contrast, images of Akhenaton are much more relaxed and realistic. Akhenaton’s new religious beliefs emphasized this world over the afterlife, and so the interest in naturalism may be seen as a reflection of this new focus. After Akhenaton’s reign, later pharaohs such as Tutankhamun reinstated traditional practices and visual forms, including elaborate tomb construction and mummification.

Innovations in Mummification

The ancient Egyptians developed an elaborate and innovative mummification process to support their religious beliefs. Members of the nobility, court officials, and even commoners might be mummified, as well as animals of religious significance, such as sacred bulls and crocodiles. However, the process was very expensive and was most often reserved for the pharaoh. As it was believed that the pharaoh would continue to use his body in the afterlife, the Egyptians were committed to preserving it forever. The success of the preservation techniques they developed can be seen in the great number of mummies that survive today. Our understanding of the Egyptian mummification process comes from studying tomb paintings and relief sculptures that depict these practices, as well as from examining the bodies themselves. In earlier periods of modern archeology it was acceptable to open mummies’ elaborate wrappings. Unfortunately, this often destroyed the body. Today, scientists use advanced imaging techniques such as CAT (Computer Axial Tomography) scans to study mummies without ruining the bodies or their shrouds. This modern technology also allows researchers to pay greater respect to the religious traditions of the past.

The Egyptian mummification process was developed in the Fourth Dynasty. It was extremely detailed and elaborate and took seventy days to complete. After death, the body was first ritually cleaned. Then an incision was cut in the left side of the torso, and the lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines were removed. The Egyptians believed that these organs were more subject to decay and thus needed distinct treatment. After removal, the organs were washed and packed in natron, a salt compound. The brain was extracted by means of a long hook through the nostril and was then discarded. The Egyptians did not attach great importance to the brain. They believed that the center of human intelligence resided in the heart, which was left within the body during the embalming process. The entire body was then filled and covered with natron, and it, along with the internal organs that had been removed, was left to dry for forty days.

An Egyptian mummy currently housed in the Vatican Museums.

Photograph by Joshua Sherucij.

After the dehydration process was complete, the body was rinsed, and the skin was rubbed with oils to maintain its suppleness. The organs were either wrapped in linen and set back within the body, or placed in separate vessels, called canopic jars, for burial. The body was filled with linen wrappings, sawdust, or leaves to maintain its shape, and the incision was sutured. The body was again rubbed with oils and lotions, and finally wrapped in hundreds of yards of linen bandages. Various amulets (small sculptures of various forms, such as deities, animals, and other symbolic objects) were placed between each layer of linen to protect the body on its journey into the next world. In the most elaborate burials, the mummy would be covered with a mask and then placed within a single sarcophagus, or series of sarcophagi in some cases, before being installed in the tomb.

The Treasure of King Tutankhamun’s Tomb

The 1922 discovery of the tomb of King Tutankhamun was one of the most celebrated archeological finds in history. The public’s intense interest in the excavation kicked off the “Egyptomania” craze of the 1920s—fashion and jewelry, music, film, and even architecture reflected the Western obsession with “exotic” Egyptian culture. While Tutankhamun was a relatively minor pharaoh who ruled for a short period of time, he has become extremely significant to our understanding of Egyptian art. At the time that his tomb was uncovered, more than thirty royal tombs had been discovered, all of which had been pillaged. Tutankhamun’s tomb was unique in terms of the riches it contained, including thousands of beautiful and opulent objects. While we may not know to what degree his tomb was typical or extraordinary, it nonetheless has given us an unprecedented window into Egyptian burial practices. Over the years it has also led scholars to ask, if such wealth was offered up for a pharaoh who ruled for less than ten years and died in his youth, what must the tombs of more significant leaders have contained?

Tutankhamun was buried in the Valley of the Kings, which was used as the main royal burial ground between the sixteenth and eleventh centuries BCE. Situated in Upper Egypt, the Valley of the Kings is on the western bank of the Nile River, opposite modern-day Luxor. Pharaohs were buried here in rock-cut tombs, which were much less visible than the earlier pyramid structures built to the north. This attempt at inconspicuousness was intended to protect the tombs from pillage, though it was generally unsuccessful.

King Tutankhamun’s tomb was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, a British archeologist and Egyptologist. Carter had been working in Egypt for over thirty years and was convinced that Tutankhamun was buried in the Valley. He was aware of a zone which had not yet been fully explored—the site was difficult to access, as it had been covered with rubble from the creation of later tombs. Carter also knew of a handful of discoveries made years earlier by another archeologist, which supported his theory.

Howard Carter (kneeling), an Egyptian workman, and Arthur Callender open the doors to the burial shrine in Pharaoh Tutankhamun’s tomb.

During the early twentieth century, Egypt granted exclusive concessions for digging in the Valley of the Kings. Between 1902 and 1914, operations there had been sponsored by Theodore Davis, an American businessman. While exploring the area, Davis’s crew had discovered a small pit, within which they found pottery jars fastened with Tutankhamun’s seal and containing linen bags of natron, as well as cloths and bandages similar to those used in the mummification process. Davis found other burial paraphernalia, including mourning wreathes and bones and vessels that appeared to have been used in a funeral feast. He also discovered a faience cup with Tutankhamun’s name inscribed on it.

The importance of these items was not fully appreciated at the time, and Davis, discouraged at not finding an intact tomb, eventually resigned his concession for excavations in the Valley. It was then that Carter convinced the Earl of Carnarvon to take on the franchise and to support his work there. Unfortunately, World War I intervened, and Carter had to delay excavation work until 1918. Carter was then finally able to dig in earnest, and he worked intently for the next four years. In 1922, Carnarvon, discouraged by Carter’s lack of success, announced that he was going to discontinue his support. Carter begged for one more season, promising that he would pay for the work himself if he did not locate the tomb of Tutankhamun.

On November 4, 1922, Carter and his crew discovered a staircase leading down to a doorway. The doorway was marked with seals of the royal necropolis, which convinced Carter that he had found Tutankhamun’s tomb, and that it was unplundered. Carter had the staircase reburied and guarded, and he sent a cable to Lord Carnarvon, inviting him to come for the unsealing of the tomb. Carnarvon and his daughter Lady Evelyn Herbert arrived, and the tomb was opened on November 26. The doorway was found to have been cut and resealed, suggesting that the tomb was not, in fact, undamaged. After passing through the doorway and excavating a twenty-five-foot-long passageway filled with rubble, Carter discovered yet another door, which again had been broken and then resealed. Carter drilled a hole into this door and inserted a candle inside the tomb. Carter described the scene as follows:

…at first I could see nothing, the hot air escaping from the chamber causing the candle flame to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues, and gold—everywhere the glint of gold.²

The tomb was found to have been constructed of four chambers, spaces Carter named the antechamber, annex, burial chamber, and treasury. The spaces were relatively small, suggesting a lack of preparation and indicating that Tutankhamun had died early and unexpectedly. Even after the earlier looting, the tomb was literally packed with objects, including ceremonial beds, thrones, vases, chariots, inlaid boxes, statuettes, weapons, jewelry, and other luxury goods. Tutankhamun’s mummy was in the burial chamber, protected by a shrine measuring seventeen feet wide, eleven feet deep, and nine feet high. The shrine was carved of wood and covered with gold. It sheltered a large stone sarcophagus, which was found to hold a series of three smaller coffins, wrapped in linen and nestled one inside the other. The innermost coffin was the most elaborate of the three.

First Sarcophagus of Tutankhamun: Analysis

The innermost coffin measures six feet, one inch long. It is made of beaten gold an eighth of an inch thick and weighs approximately a quarter ton. The surface is chased and engraved and is inlaid with semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, and carnelian. The overwhelming visual characteristic of the coffin is opulence. The materials and detail of the decoration illustrate the great value attached to the pharaoh and his bodily form. In this work, we see artistic processes used in the service of other technical innovations made by the Egyptians, namely in the areas of mummification and funerary practice. These processes, scientific and artistic, reinforce each other in the service of Egyptian religious beliefs.

Overall, the coffin presents the pharaoh as the god Osiris. In the Egyptian pantheon, Osiris is the god of the afterlife and is a central character of Egyptian mythology. The most important story associated with Osiris relates to his death and resurrection. According to the myth, Osiris, one of the earliest kings of Egypt, was killed by his brother Set, who wanted the throne for himself. After murdering him, Set cut Osiris’s body into pieces and scattered the pieces across Egypt. Osiris’s wife Isis collected his body parts and—helped by Anubis, the Egyptian god of embalming and funerary rites—brought her husband briefly back to life. Conceptually, depicting the pharaoh as Osiris was intended to insure that, like the god, the king’s body would be reanimated after his death.

Howard Carter opens the innermost shrine of King Tutankhamun’s tomb.

Tutankhamun is depicted here wearing the Egyptian ceremonial beard and folded linen headdress. These symbols of Egyptian kingship date back to the Old Kingdom era and are seen in images of the pharaohs throughout time. Above his chest, in his crossed hands the figure holds the crook and flail, symbols of Osiris and Egyptian kingship in general. The crook is a cane with a hooked handle, while the flail is a rod with three attached, beaded strands. These tools, used by shepherds to both guide and strike their flocks, symbolize two means of control used by the pharaoh to lead his people.

Tutankhamun wears a double-strand of gold and blue faience beads around his neck, an adornment awarded to Egyptian kings and other officials for notable service. His chest is covered with a wide collar of beads, in rich blues and reds, which similarly decorate the bracelets on his wrists. Elaborate cloisonné work in the same color palette covers his abdomen and arms. While the illustration in your Art Reproductions Booklet does not display the full coffin, the lower half of Tutankhamun’s body is also richly decorated and highly symbolic. Depictions of the vulture of Nekhbet and the cobra of Wadjet (which also has the body of a vulture) wrap their wings protectively about his torso. Nekhbet and Wadjet are the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, and between them they hold the hieroglyphic sign for infinity. The two goddesses are also seen on the pharaoh’s forehead, at the center of the headdress. From the waist down, the golden surface is engraved with figures of the goddesses Isis and Nephthys, whose wings again embrace Tutankhamun’s figure. They serve as protectors of Osiris, and thus Tutankhamun’s mummy.

Within the coffin, Tutankhamun’s body was wrapped in elaborate linen bandages. A beautifully decorated death mask covered his head and shoulders. His outer two coffins were also richly decorated, though unlike the innermost coffin, they were carved of wood and overlaid with plaster and a thin layer of gold. The decorations of the outer coffins were also primarily in blues and reds and consisted of faience and colored glass, rather than the semiprecious stones of the innermost coffin. The three coffins were all encased in the large stone sarcophagus that was first seen by Carter and his associates upon the opening of the tomb.

The complexity of Tutankhamun’s burial is no doubt indicative of his general rank as pharaoh, rather than being suggestive of any particular significance he held as a notable or heroic individual. In reality, Tutankhamun was a minor figure in Egyptian history. He became pharaoh at approximately age nine in 1361 BCE, during the Eighteenth Dynasty of the New Kingdom. His parentage is unknown, though he may have been the son of Akhenaton by one of his minor wives. Tutankhamun reigned until his death in c. 1323 BCE. Legends of assassination and murder swirled around him, but extensive study of his mummy in 2005 revealed that shortly before his death he had broken his leg and that it had become infected. DNA evidence from 2010 further indicates that he had malaria. These conditions together were no doubt the cause of his natural death. While his life was short and his rule relatively uneventful, Tutankhamun has become a major figure of fascination in the modern era simply by virtue of the accidents of history that preserved his tomb into the twentieth century.

Myth and mystery have surrounded Tutankhamun since his reemergence from antiquity. Lord Carnarvon died unexpectedly six weeks after Tutankhamun’s tomb was opened, when he cut himself by nicking a mosquito bite while shaving. The cut became infected, and he succumbed to blood poisoning. This led to the fear of a “curse” on those associated with disturbing Tutankhamun’s tomb. The deaths of any people associated with the excavation were suspect, though Carter himself lived long after his most important discovery. He retired from archeology and died a natural death from lymphoma in 1939, after having given the world one of the most extraordinary treasures ever found. [For a discussion of some of the items from Tutankhamun’s tomb, presented by Dr Zahi Hawass, former Egyptian Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Hyqwnmnbew.]

SELECTED WORK

POSEIDON/ZEUS, Greek, Early Classical Period

Greek Culture and Art

Ancient Greek culture was much more focused on the world of the living than Egyptian society had been. As made evident in works of art, the Greeks celebrated human individuality and activity. Greek political life was based on a relatively democratic system, which allowed for broader civic participation than the pharaonic system in Egypt. An emphasis on humanity can also be seen in Greek mythology, which includes a pantheon of gods who are plagued by very human frailties. Greek culture emphasized intellectualism and included the development of theatre and philosophy, as well as the celebration of athleticism and physical beauty. This emphasis on the human form can clearly be seen in the treatment of the body in Greek art.

Greek art, unlike Egyptian, was highly dynamic, and it evolved significantly over time through a series of progressive periods: the Geometric and Orientalizing (c. 900–600 BCE), Archaic (c. 600–480 BCE), Early and High Classical (c. 480–400 BCE), Late Classical (c. 400–323 BCE), and Hellenistic (c. 323–30 BCE). Throughout its evolution, Greek art aspired to greater and greater naturalism, balance, and perfection. The Greeks’ desire for imagery that echoed, and even surpassed, the beauty of the world around them led to significant advancements, particularly in the realm of figurative sculpture. Innovations in sculptural methods and materials allowed the Greeks to depict new poses and figural forms and greatly contributed to the amazing quality of art produced in this period of ancient history.

Egyptian Figurative Sculpture Precursors

There are several clear connections between Egyptian and Greek art which reflect contact between the two cultures across the Mediterranean Sea. One distinct link may be found in the figurative sculpture produced in each region. As we have seen in the discussion of King Tutankhamun, Egyptian tombs often included three-dimensional sculptural elements created to supplement the function of the pharaoh’s mummy. These ka statues were carved of extremely hard, durable stone such as diorite, which made them largely immovable and indestructible. As potential “back-up” quarters for the pharaoh’s spirit, it was necessary that they remain in the tomb and intact for eternity.

Ka statues, like most of Egyptian art, were very conservative in design. Few variants exist, and most conform to two main types: standing or seated forms. Some statues include the pharaoh’s wife, who may stand or sit with him, but the poses are generally limited to these two basic configurations. The pharaoh may be seen wearing standard costume, such as the ceremonial beard and folded linen headdress we saw with Tutankhamun, as well as a traditional kilt. If seated, he is likely enthroned on a chair decorated with symbolic elements, such as the lotus and papyrus blossoms that indicate Upper and Lower Egypt. He may be depicted in the protective presence of the falcon-god Horus, and inscriptions across the object may be used to identify him and the function of the sculpture.

Regardless of these details, the pharaoh is always depicted in a rigid, fully frontal view. A sense of timelessness is accentuated through this unyielding presentation. The enduring aspect of the work is also maintained through the way the body is carved. His limbs are held close to his body, and often a “web” of stone is left to connect the figure to the block from which it has been sculpted. This method serves to protect any areas which would be vulnerable to breakage. For example, the space between the torso and arm as it hung at the side was filled with stone to insure that the arm remained intact.

The Egyptian desire for durability was supported even at the expense of anatomical accuracy. This is most clearly seen in the standing figures, where the pharaoh is often depicted stepping forward. This suggestion of motion brings a measure of life to the figure as a way to specify its function as a potential home for the ka. What is most significant about this pose is that we find no corresponding shift in the hips to indicate the weight shift that occurs with a forward step. Instead, the hips of the pharaoh remain perfectly parallel with the ground. His advancing leg must thus be longer than the other, stationary leg. As we will see, while the Greeks at first replicated this structural “error,” the problem was resolved as their techniques developed.

This pair statue of the mayor Nen-kheft-ka and his wife Nefer-shemes exemplifies standard Egyptian artistic conventions for figurative sculture. Nen-kheft-ka strides forward with his left foot and holds his arms closely at his sides. His wife, depicted on a smaller scale, stands with her feet together.

Greek Innovations in Sculptural Materials

When most people imagine a Greek figurative sculpture, they no doubt picture a pristine, white marble body. In reality, “all ancient literary accounts indicate that freestanding bronze statuary was the primary mode of artistic expression in Classical Greece.”³ Many of the “Greek” sculptures we know today are actually Roman copies in marble of original Greek bronzes. Once the Greeks developed bronze casting, it was the preferred sculptural mode for their art.

Unfortunately, less than thirty original monumental Greek bronzes remain. Many were lost over time as they were melted down in later periods for the value of their bronze material. In the Early Christian and Byzantine eras, Greek statues were seen as depicting “pagan” figures and so were less valued by these monotheistic cultures. While these works may not have been highly prized in later periods, they were very popular in their own day. Many were copied by Greeks and later Romans using less expensive marble, and in many instances, it is often only from these copies that we know of a given work. Those Greek bronzes that are extant have mostly been found in archeological excavations and in the Mediterranean Sea, where they had been lost in shipwrecks. These discoveries have generally been recent, many taking place in the 1950s and later. Prior to the early nineteenth century, none of these sculptures were known to the modern era. With each new discovery, our understanding of Greek bronze sculpture, and Greek sculpture in general, has been advanced.

Bronze is an alloy, or combination of metals. It consists primarily of copper with tin added. Copper alone is not good for casting—when worked, it becomes porous and contracts when it cools. Adding tin provides a much more stable material. The resulting bronze has a lower melting point and is significantly harder than pure copper. The typical Greek alloy consists of eleven units of copper to one of tin, resulting in a material that was particularly prized for its strength and beauty.

The Bronze Age in Greece began about 2000 BCE. The material was first used for weapons and tools, which at that time were created by hammering sheets of bronze into the desired shapes. Later innovations in metallurgy, as well as increased access to tin via trade throughout the Mediterranean, allowed the Greeks to further develop the technology. They used bronze to create objects for everyday use, such as vases, bowls, jewelry, mirrors, and tripods, as well as various sculptural forms, both large and small.

The bronze Victorious Youth sculpture c. 300–100 BCE. Working in bronze allowed the ancient Greeks a great degree of naturalism in the treatment of the figure.

The first bronze sculptures were created on the island of Crete during the first half of the second millennium BCE. These early works were generally small in scale and cast as solid forms. With this method, a simple mold would be made, typically of clay, and filled with molten bronze. Great advancements were made as the Greeks developed the lost-wax technique, which allowed for the creation of much larger structures. Lost-wax could be accomplished in both direct and indirect forms, and later sculptors would use both in combination in order to achieve various visual effects and arrangements.

The direct method of lost-wax casting begins with the creation of a basic form developed in clay, often over some sort of structural armature. A thin layer of beeswax is applied over the dried core and is then worked to great detail. A system of wax rods (or “sprues”) and vents are stuck into the surface of the form along with a series of metal pins and a funnel at the top of the piece. This entire structure is then covered with a clay outer casing (known as the “investment mold”). The object is then fired upside down, either in a pit or a kiln. The wax melts and runs out of the form through the funnel—thus giving this technique its name, “lost” wax. The vents help the gasses that are produced during the firing process escape, and the pins hold the entire object stable as a thin negative space develops in the area formerly occupied by the wax. Molten bronze is then poured into the funnel, filling this negative space. Once the object has cooled, the investment mold is broken off. The clay core may be removed or left in place, depending on its accessibility. The resulting sculpture is hollow and yet very strong and materially stable.

The indirect method is very similar, though it allows for the production of multiples. In this technique, the sculpture is modeled in any material: clay, wax, wood, stone, etc. From this figure a clay master mold is taken by covering the sculpture in clay, allowing it to dry, and then carefully cutting it off in pieces. This mold is lined with beeswax, which may be brushed on or poured in, depending on the configuration of the template. A core of liquid clay is then poured into the master mold and allowed to dry. The master mold is removed, the wax layer is reworked or refined as necessary, and the process proceeds as with the direct method. In this case, the original sculpture and master mold are retained. This allows the figure to be recast in the future, unlike the direct method where the original (wax) form is lost. [For a video demonstrating a modern version of the lost wax process, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPgEIM-NbhQ.]

Working in bronze allowed the ancient Greeks a great degree of naturalism in the treatment of the figure. Bronze sculptures could be highly polished, making the resulting body look oiled and tanned, like an elite Greek athlete. Additional details were added to enhance this naturalism, such as inlaid eyes in stone, glass, or rock crystal, or teeth made of silver, marble, or ivory. Lips and nipples might be highlighted with copper, which presents a redder hue than bronze, and eyelashes might be constructed of fringed sheet bronze to add a degree of delicacy to the facial features. In many instances, the figure’s hair might be cast separately, so that it could hang freely and more naturalistically away from the back of the neck. This naturalism in details was used to support the overall evolution in Greek statuary toward realism, which can also be clearly seen in the poses the Greeks evolved for their sculptures.

Greek Innovations in Figural Poses

Ancient Greek sculptors moved to bronze as a favored material for statuary not only for its surface quality, but also for its strength. Bronze allowed them to create more complex figural arrangements than were possible in traditional stone. In fact, the poses used in Greek Classical art evolved in tandem with advances in metalworking—a desire for more realistic figures was encouraged by the development of bronze, while innovations in lost-wax techniques inspired sculptors to develop even more dramatic poses.

The earliest full-sized Greek figurative statues were depictions of male youths. These nude forms were used as grave markers and votive offerings and were carved in marble during the Archaic Period. They generally echoed standing Egyptian ka statues, with rigidly frontal poses—arms to the sides and one foot stepping forward. As with their Egyptian antecedents, the hips of these figures were not tilted, and their projecting legs were elongated. The awkwardness of their proportions and the lack of realistic detail indicate less artistic sophistication as compared to earlier Egyptian statuary. The Greeks were clearly aware of Egyptian art, but they did not yet have the skill to replicate it.

Over a fairly short period of time, these figures, known as kouros (“youth”) evolved toward greater naturalism. Bodily proportions became more accurate, and musculature began to be delineated through swelling forms rather than simple incised lines. Painted details enhanced the surface of the works, and hair began to be depicted falling more naturalistically across the body. Finally, in the Early Classical period, figures such as the Kritios Boy began to appear, which incorporated contrapposto, or “counterpose”: a forward-stepping posture, with the shifting of weight to one leg. Bodies began to rotate more flexibly around the spine and moved away from a strictly frontal view. Through the High and Late Classical phases, these innovations continued, reaching their peak in the Hellenistic era, with complex works such as Laocoön and His Sons, created by Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes in the early first century CE. Within a few hundred years, Greek sculptors had radically evolved the sculpted figure in art.

poseidon/Zeus: Analysis

This over life-size bronze figure is a hallmark of Greek figurative sculpture of the Early Classical period. The sculptor is unknown, though the work has variously been attributed to Anatas, Kalamis, and Myron.⁴ The subject is also unknown, as the work is missing the object once held in the right hand. This item would no doubt help us identify the figure; if he were holding a lightning bolt, we would recognize him as Zeus, king of the gods, wielding his favorite weapon. Were the figure about to throw a trident, the three-pronged spear associated with Poseidon, we would surely recognize the figure as the sea god. While we cannot know for certain, the figure is generally identified as a depiction of Zeus.

We do not know the purpose of the work. It may have been intended for a sanctuary, where it would have functioned as a religious object. It might also have been meant as a votive offering of some sort. The sculpture was found in 1926 in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Greece at Cape Artemision. Greek fishermen discovered the work in the remains of an ancient shipwreck. In 1928 an archeological expedition recovered it from the sea. We have no information on why or where it was being transported, and so in many ways it remains a mystery.

What is known about the figure is its mastery of execution. Standing 6’10”, this male nude hollow-cast form stands in an assertive pose. His legs are positioned well apart, creating a strong triangular base for the body. This shape is countered by the inverted triangle of the upper body, with widely spread arms tapering to the strong torso and waist. He looks toward his left with a stern expression, accentuated even by his beard, which forcefully points in the direction of his view. He stands with his left arm extended, his hand palm down and his middle finger tensed. It is as if he is sighting his aim off of this extended hand. His right arm is on the same horizontal line as his left, up to his elbow. At that point his arm turns up, with the hand curved to hold the cylindrical shaft of his missing weapon.⁵

Figures such as the Kritios Boy, which incorporated contrapposto, or “counterpose”: a forward-stepping posture, with the shifting of weight to one leg, began to appear in the Early Classical period.

Poseidon/Zeus’ muscles are just flexing as he begins the fluid motion that will launch his missile. He is not yet straining, but is poised on his feet and beginning to turn. His body is tense for the action—even the veins in his hands and feet are detailed, bulging with blood as his body begins to move. His weight is carried on his left heel, with the toes of the right foot balancing his large form. Unlike earlier Greek and Egyptian works, this body is not rigid and inert. It is extremely realistic, with smooth musculature and accurate proportioning, and while the figure is best viewed from the front, it is perfectly finished fully in the round, so that the back is as finely detailed as the frontal view.

The figure wears his long hair plaited into two braids, which are wrapped around his head and knotted together at his forehead, above his thick, curly bangs. This was a typical male hairstyle in Greece during the first half of the fifth century BCE. His facial features include a long, straight nose and arching eyebrows of inlaid silver. His widely spaced eyes, which are now empty, would have originally been inlaid with glass or translucent stone. His lips and nipples are accentuated with copper, giving them a rosier tinge than the rest of the body. The texture of his hair and beard, which are detailed through engraving across the surface of the bronze, contrast strongly with the smoothness of his nude musculature.

What is perhaps most innovative about work is the figure’s pose. Through the use of the lost-wax technique, the artist was able to achieve a body positioning that would have been impossible in stone. The sculpture’s cantilevered arms span a distance greater than his height. Were he holding his weapon, the width of the figure would be even greater. Stone would be unable to sustain itself in this pose; it would collapse of its own weight. In addition, the fact that this large figure is balanced only on three prongs set into the soles of the feet further indicates a mastery of technique and skilled use of materials. The body, which would have been cast in sections and then soldered together, is perfectly constructed. It is a true masterpiece of Greek technical and artistic ingenuity.

SELECTED WORK

PONT DU GARD, NÎMES, France, c. First Century CE

Early Construction Techniques

The Pont du Gard, part of an aqueduct, was a bridge constructed by the ancient Romans. The most significant element of the Pont du Gard is its use of the arch form. Prior to this architectural innovation, the most common techniques for designing spaces included simple mounding, often with dried mud bricks, and post-and-lintel construction, which used two upright stone or wood members (the “posts”) to support a third horizontal component (the “lintel”). Perhaps the most famous early structures to use the post-and-lintel form are Stonehenge in England (c. 2550–1600 BCE) and hypostyle halls of Egyptian temples, such as the one at Amun-Ra at Karnak (begun fifteenth century BCE).

While both of these early forms allowed for the creation and roofing of chambers, they were limited in many ways. Mounding relies on the strength of the walls to support the structure, and so does not allow for large windows and the penetration of significant light. Post-and-lintel arrangements are limited by the length and weight of their horizontal elements. Wooden beams can only be as large as the tree that produced them, and both timbers and stone monoliths will sag under the tension of their own weight as they reach between vertical supports. (These forces have been discussed briefly in our presentation of Poseidon/Zeus and the Greeks’ desire for a stronger sculpting material.) This means that the distance between the vertical elements is necessarily small, resulting in spaces filled with posts, as was indeed the case at Karnak.

The “Treasury of Atreus” at Mycenae is an early example of a corbeled arch.

One final early building technique that more directly leads us to the Roman arch system is the use of corbeling. Early examples include the fortification walls at Tiryns and the “Treasury of Atreus” at Mycenae, both in Greece. In a corbeled arch, courses of stone are built up, with each row projecting slightly beyond the row below. The walls meet in a crudely pointed arch. In the case of a corbeled vault, rings of stones, again placed to protrude slightly inward, meet in a roughly pointed dome form. While corbeling allows for a greater flexibility and openness in the creation of space, it still greatly relies on mass. It uses much material, and the load-bearing walls are difficult to puncture with windows. Under the Romans, significant advances in engineering would provide radically new and innovative architectural forms.

Roman Development of the Arch

Roman culture is somewhat difficult to define. The Romans were a highly imperialistic civilization, and they spread quickly and widely throughout the Mediterranean region. They tended to absorb and incorporate each new culture they encountered, and so variation throughout the Empire in terms of ethnic, geographic, and artistic elements was great. Within this highly variable culture, the Romans did little to advance visual art—they were very much indebted to the Greeks for their sculptural forms, for example—but their contributions in the area of architecture were great. They developed new structural forms based on new materials and engineering techniques, including the arch, the vault, and concrete.

The Romans learned of the arch form either from the Etruscans or the Greek Hellenistic builders who first used it in Italy early in the third century BCE. This structure served the need for new spaces as Roman society evolved—the construction of the large public gathering areas, markets, and baths that were central to Roman culture. As with the Greek development of bronze for statuary, innovations and requirements developed mutually. Arches allowed for extremely stable and strong forms, which could be used to enclose a space of any desired scale. No longer were builders limited by the physics of simple mounding or post-and-lintel structures.

To construct an arch, individual stones are cut into separate, wedge-shaped forms, called voussoirs. The final stone at the top of the arch is the “keystone.”

To construct an arch, individual stones are cut into separate, wedge-shaped forms, called voussoirs. These cut stones are carefully shaped to be wider at the top than the bottom. As they are set together, this profile creates compression between the forms—they do not fall vertically with gravity, but instead transmit the thrust of their force to the adjacent stone. This transfer of force continues down the arch, to the vertical supports below. In compression, the stones create an extremely solid structure. In fact, the larger the curve of the arch, the stronger the arch will be. In order to construct such a form, and until the final stone at the top of the arch (the “keystone”) has been placed, the arch has to be supported by a system of scaffolding or “centering.” Once the keystone has been positioned, however, the resulting form is much stronger than the earlier arching techniques that preceded it. (See Section I: Art Fundamentals for a diagram outlining the various types and details of vaulting systems.)

The Romans made many advances on the simple arch, including the barrel vault and the groin vault.

The Romans made many advances on the simple arch as well. A series of arches butted up against each other were used to create a barrel vault, which could be taller and wider than a post-and-lintel structure or a corbeled vault. Two barrel vaults could be crossed at a ninety degree angle, which resulted in a groin vault. This structure transferred the thrust of the vault’s weight down to freestanding piers, rather than solid walls, which insured greater flexibility in terms of shaping space. This form would be the basis for many important later innovations, and it was key to the development of structures as sophisticated as the Gothic cathedrals. [For a discussion of how arches and the forces on them work, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CdNYTjXJPKE.]

Pont du Gard: Analysis

The Pont du Gard is an example of Roman architecture found at Nîmes (ancient Nemausus), France. This example, far from the Italian peninsula, shows the geographic breadth of the Roman Empire. It also helps explain one aspect of the Romans’ success and why they were able to expand their reign so widely. As the Romans conquered a new area, they did not simply force the local population under their control. They were careful to provide positive advantages, such as new construction projects like bridges and roads, in order to win the favor of the indigenous community. The Pont du Gard is a perfect instance of this. It is an aqueduct bridge built to bring clean water to the people of Nîmes. The bridge transported clean water from springs at Uzès thirty-one miles away and provided each of the approximately 50,000 citizens of the city with a hundred gallons per day.

The Pont du Gard and the aqueduct system for Nîmes were long believed to have been built by the emperor Agrippa between 20–16 BCE. Recent excavations suggest that it may actually have been built in the first century CE. Regardless of its true date of construction, the bridge is one of the best preserved in the Roman world. As the water in the system traveled from the spring outside the city, it was brought through an array of channels to the center of town. Simple gravity brought the flow through these channels, which are set variously throughout the system, below ground, on low walls, or across the bridge as seen here. Overall, the water fell only fifty-six feet from the elevation of the spring to the fountains at Nîmes.

As the system reached the gorge of the Gardon River, it was necessary to construct a bridge. This maintained the elevation of the channel and kept the water smoothly flowing through the system. The resulting structure is the highest Roman aqueduct bridge constructed. It was designed as a three-story structure, 880 feet long and 160 feet high. Each of the large arches of the lower stories spans eighty-two feet and is built of stone blocks weighing two tons each. No mortar or clamps were used in the bridge’s construction. It is the result of incredibly careful planning and attention to detail. For example, the wide central arch on the lowest course spans the width of the stream, and so none of the abutments is actually placed in the river. This protects the bridge from erosion by the river as it flows under the structure.

Bust of Emperor Agrippa. The Pont du Gard was long believed to have been built by Emperor Agrippa between 20–16 BCE, but recent excavations suggest that it may actually have been built in the first century CE.

The overall strength and longevity of the bridge are the result of its basic configuration and use of the arch form. Unlike a barrel vault, where a series of arches is arranged to create a tunnel form, here the arches are set side by side, to form a wide arcade. The arcade spans the entire gorge, and the bridge is anchored against the valley walls on either side. Thus, the thrust of the central arches is transferred toward the adjacent arches, which then carry and further transmit the load to the fixed walls of the canyon. The height and mass of the bridge only further strengthen the overall structure and have helped it maintain its form since antiquity.

SELECTED WORK

THE PANTHEON, Rome, Italy, c. 126 CE

Roman Development of Concrete

Another important element of Roman engineering that allowed many of their construction projects to last through time was the development of concrete. While some scholars believe that concrete may have been used in ancient Egypt, we see the material definitively arise with the Romans. Indeed, this was perhaps the most significant architectural innovation of the Roman period. As with many of the other examples of innovations we have seen, it was developed out of necessity. The Romans did not have convenient access to marble quarries as in Greece. Their local stone was primarily soft volcanic material, which was not suitable for the ambitious construction projects they desired. In order to fabricate the forms necessary for their evolving and expanding culture, the Romans needed a new, more flexible building material. They experimented with various substances and mixtures and through a process of trial and error were at last able to develop an ideal concrete recipe. Thus, the development of concrete was less a single great discovery than it was an evolving process of innovation and investigation.

Concrete is made of a mixture of lime mortar, volcanic sand, and stone, to which water is added. A chemical reaction with the water changes the molecular structure of the materials, which creates heat and binds them strongly to each other, essentially creating “artificial stone.” The resulting material is excellent for construction, as it can essentially be molded into any shape and is fire-resistant. With concrete, architecture becomes an issue of space rather than mass, as large, unobstructed areas can be built in almost any configuration.

Lime mortars and manifestations of concrete had been used in earlier eras. What made Roman concrete different was the particular materials used and the sophistication of their application. Roman builders began with simple techniques, such as mortared rubble construction. Using this method, two closely placed brick walls were filled with rubble and then covered in clay. Later methods included binding the rubble with poured mortars of various formulas. The most significant advancement was in the addition of pozzolana to the mortar mixture. This reddish volcanic dust, also known as pozzolanic ash, bound especially well with sand and lime to create a strong, waterproof mass as it cured. It was also superior in that the pozzolana mixture could be set in damp conditions, allowing for greater flexibility in construction scheduling.

Interior of the Pantheon’s dome, which was made possible only by the Romans’ development of concrete.

Roman concrete was characterized by the use of a wide variety of aggregate stone. It is the stone that gives concrete its strength and mass, and the Romans were very thoughtful in their choice of aggregate for a given construction project. They used everything from selce, a very heavy lava stone, to lightweight tufa and pumice. They even recycled architectural sculptures and stone rubble from demolished buildings for use as aggregate material. Experimentation and innovation was typical in the development of Roman architecture and is perhaps best illustrated in one of the most significant monuments of the Roman era, the Pantheon.

The Pantheon: Analysis

The Pantheon is one of the most unusual and remarkable temples of the ancient era. It was built under the emperor Hadrian, although the inscription on the front of the building states, M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT (indicating that the temple was founded by Marcus Agrippa and completed during his third round as consul in 27 or 25 BCE). Agrippa’s original temple was burnt in 80 CE. A second structure, build by Domitian, was destroyed as well. This is actually the third version of the temple constructed at this location. The inscription shows respect for tradition, the original building, and the emperor who first sponsored it. The temple, like the two previous versions, was dedicated to all of the gods in the Roman pantheon.

The basic architectural form of the temple is quite simple. Here a hemispherical dome is set on a cylindrical base—thus, the walls are rounded like a drum to easily fit the roof form. The result is an interior that delineates a perfect sphere. The space is amazingly scaled, even for a modern-day visitor, and it is very open, with no central supports to break it up. The interior is particularly striking and surprising because one enters this space via a very traditional-looking Corinthian portico. The entrance echoes a standard temple, with a colonnade, pediment, and pitched roof line. Instead of the rectangular space suggested by the temple front, one discovers a vast, circular interior space. [For a 360° panoramic view of the interior of the Pantheon, see http://www.learn.columbia.edu/ha/html/ancient_rome_pantheon_int_1.htm.]

A diagrammatic sketch of the Pantheon.

This marvel of an interior is made possible primarily through the use of concrete. Given its flexibility, the material could be shaped into the perfectly curved lines of the drum and dome. The dome itself was only possible through the use of this newly formulated material. At 142 feet in diameter, it is the largest such structure in Europe built prior to the twentieth century. Before this, the Treasury of Atreus was the only comparable vaulted space without interior supports, though at merely forty-three feet high, it was quite small in comparison to the Pantheon.

The Pantheon dome is quite complex in its design. It is supported at its base by the walls of the main body of the temple. These curved lines are twenty feet thick, as is the dome as it joins with them. From there, the dome springs to the ceiling, and its width gradually decreases until it is a mere six feet thick at the pinnacle. The concrete mix used to shape the dome included five different aggregates, with denser, heavier materials closer to the drum, and lighter materials used as it springs upward. The dome is further manipulated through the use of coffers, which are telescoping square forms that were used to remove material and thus further lighten the load of the dome. Finally, the top of the dome is punctured by an oculus thirty feet in diameter. This circular hole was the primary source of light for the interior in antiquity.⁶

The temple was originally very richly decorated. Each coffer of the dome was adorned with a gilded bronze rosette, which gave the dome the visual characteristic of a starry night sky. The walls were covered with thin sheets of marble veneer and marble columns, giving the interior a multicolored appear ance. The niches in the drum interior were filled with sculptures dedicated to all the Roman gods. All of these decorative elements were brought to the temple from throughout the Roman Empire. This served as a reminder of the wealth and extent of the Roman holdings. In addition to their propagandistic function, the decorations also served to sheath the relatively modest-looking concrete material from which the building was constructed. Rich marble and bronze were used to spectacular effect here, though the glory of the building was truly in the concrete below these surfaces.

Later Loss and Ultimate Rediscovery of Concrete

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the use of concrete was drastically reduced. By 400 CE the particular Roman recipe was lost. Concrete effectively disappeared as a building material until the fourteenth century. Between the 1300s and mid-1600s, concrete was used sporadically, until the Canal du Midi was constructed in 1670 in Southern France. In 1759, British engineer John Smeaton used concrete to build the Eddystone Lighthouse in Devon, England. Later modernizations included the development of Portland cement, the most common form in use today, by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 and the invention of reinforced concrete in 1849 by Joseph Monier. It is remarkable that concrete, used to such perfection in the Roman era, has only reemerged relatively recently in human history. Today, it is one of the most prevalent building materials in use around the world.

Section II Summary

images Several ancient cultures developed in the region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, with the first cities settled in Mesopotamia, in the Fertile Crescent between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

images Early civilizations included the Sumerians and Egyptians as well as cultures on the Greek mainland and throughout the Greek islands and the Etruscans on the Italian peninsula.

images The ancient world of the Mediterranean was characterized by major technological advancements, particularly in the realm of metalworking during the Bronze and Iron Ages.

images This technological progress allowed for advancements in many areas, such as civil engineering, transportation, agriculture, and warfare.

images Many ancient cultures in this region were in contact through trade.

images Today our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean world is largely shaped by the cultural products they left behind that serve as evidence of their systems of religion, politics, and art.

images   First Sarcophagus of Tutankhamun Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty

images The Egyptian religious system saw the pharaoh as a mediator between the people and the gods. The pharaoh was responsible for ensuring the regular cycles of nature, particularly the annual flooding of the Nile River.

images The Egyptians developed innovative mummification techniques to support their religious beliefs. They believed that the pharaoh and others would continue to use their bodies in the afterlife, and so they worked to preserve them.

images The First Sarcophagus of Tutankhamun, from the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun, was discovered in 1922 in the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun. One of the most important archeological finds in history, it led to the “Egyptomania” craze of the 1920s.

images Tutankhamun was buried in the Valley of the Kings, which was used as the main royal burial ground between the sixteenth and eleventh centuries BCE.

images The coffin is made of gold and is incredibly richly decorated, with semi-precious stones and symbols.

images  Poseidon/Zeus, Greek, Early Classical Period

images Greek society celebrated the individual—this is seen in the culture’s relatively democratic political system as well as in the highly idealized figurative art it produced.

images Greek figures such as Poseidon/Zeus are directly descended from earlier Egyptian examples, particularly Egyptian ka statues. Ka statues, which were often inserted into the tombs of pharaohs, served as potential “back up” quarters for the pharaoh’s spirit, should the king’s mummy fail.

images Greek figurative sculptures were not necessarily carved in marble. The Greeks preferred bronze for such works, and they developed innovative techniques, such as lost-wax, to create them.

images Poseidon/Zeus is an over-life-size bronze figure which depicts either the sea god Poseidon or the ruler of the gods, Zeus.

images  Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France, c. First Century CE

images The most significant element of the Pont du Gard is its use of the arch form. The Romans developed the arch from earlier construction techniques, such as post-and-lintel forms and corbelled spaces.

images The Pont du Gard is an example of Roman architecture found in France. This shows the geographic breadth of the Roman Empire and helps explain one aspect of the Romans’ success—when they conquered a new area, they brought many positive things, including fresh water.

images The Pont du Gard is an aqueduct bridge built to bring clean water to the people of Nîmes. The bridge transported clean water from springs thirty-one miles away and provided each of the approximately 50,000 citizens of the city with a hundred gallons per day.

images The Pont du Gard is one of the best preserved aqueducts in the Roman world. It is the highest Roman aqueduct bridge constructed; it takes the form of a three-story structure and is 880 feet long and 160 feet high.

images  The Pantheon, Rome, Italy, c.126 CE

images Perhaps the most significant architectural innovation of the Roman period was the development of concrete. Concrete is essentially “artificial stone” which is fire-resistant and can be molded into any shape.

images The Pantheon, built under the emperor Hadrian, is the third version of the temple constructed at this site. It is dedicated to all of the Roman gods.

images The temple is basically cylindrical in form and is roofed with a hemispherical dome. This unusual shape is made possible through the use of concrete, which allowed for the curved lines of the structure.

images At 142 feet in diameter, the Pantheon was the largest domed structure in Europe prior to the twentieth century.

images After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the use of concrete dramatically declined, and by 400 CE the Romans’ specific recipe was lost. Concrete effectively disappeared as a building material until the fourteenth century.

SECTION III

Artistic Innovations of the Renaissance

The Renaissance–Overview

In art history, the Renaissance spans roughly from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries. The term “renaissance” translates to “rebirth” and refers to the reemergence of the ideals of classical antiquity during this period. When we discuss the Renaissance, we generally focus on Western Europe, particularly Italy and the Netherlands, where some of the most significant shifts in politics, art, and economics occurred. However, this was a time of great change on a global level, and important transformations were occurring throughout Africa, Asia, and the Americas as well.

This era is also known as the Age of Discovery, as there were huge advances in technology, science, and the physical exploration of the globe. European powers of the age, such as Spain and Portugal, undertook major campaigns to discover sea routes to the East Indies, where they hoped to develop trade networks for items such as precious metals, spices, and tea. Naval exploration led to the development of new navigational tools as well as the initial mapping of the globe. Advances in mechanics and metallurgy led to even more innovations.

In many aspects of human endeavor, Greek and Roman sources were rediscovered and celebrated during the Renaissance. In politics, literature, philosophy, and art, Renaissance thinkers and artists looked toward classical sources for inspiration. This influence is especially seen in art through a return to naturalism. Following a shift away from classical ideals during the medieval period, Renaissance artists brought back an emphasis on realistic presentation like that seen in many classical works and developed new tools to achieve visually convincing forms in art, such as atmospheric and linear perspective as well as oil paints.

The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages (approximately 375–1400), also referred to as the medieval period, is the period of time between the Classical and Renaissance eras. This period was once referred to as the “Dark Ages” though we no longer use that term. The term “dark” was intended to suggest a lull in the evolution of Western society, and though this was certainly a time of war, famine, and disease, historians now recognize this period as one that was rich in art and culture. When we examine the Middle Ages, we look at the remnants of the Roman Empire both in the West, in areas such as Italy, France and Germany, as well as Byzantium in the East.

An artistic representation of the three social groupings of the Middle Ages: Cleric, Knight, and Workman.

Painting of Mehmet II conquering Constantinople by Italian Realist painter Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929). After the Turks captured the capital, many Byzantine Christians, including important scholars, artists, and scientists, fled to the West.

In the western region, the Roman Empire fragmented into a collection of migrating, clashing tribes. It was a time of lawlessness, and the necessities of life were meager and unevenly distributed. People grouped together for protection and pledged alliance to a leader. These groupings laid the foundations of the feudal system and would eventually develop into the major European nations that we know today. Beyond these new political alliances, the other major institution of this period in the West was the Latin Church, which sustained the traditions of Roman Christianity. Monasteries, which functioned as largely self-sufficient communities where art and learning thrived, were established throughout the region at this time.

In the East, Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium emphasized Orthodox Christianity over the Roman tradition; this split in the Christian Church is still evident today. Unlike the West, which had largely collapsed and fragmented, in the East the Church and State were united. The Byzantine emperor was not only the political leader; he served as pope of the Orthodox Church as well. This concentration of power created a greater stability in the East and insured that the Byzantine Empire would flourish throughout the Middle Ages.

Transition from the Medieval World to the Renaissance

The shift from the medieval world to the age of the Renaissance was greatly affected by the dramatic fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Turks in 1453. After the Turks captured the capital, many Byzantine Christians, including important scholars, artists, and scientists, fled to the West. These refugees brought with them the accumulated knowledge that had been preserved and cultivated in the East throughout the Middle Ages. Much classical scholarship that had been lost to the West during this period was now available and would inspire renewed investigations of ancient thought and art.

This classical revival is very clearly demonstrated in the art produced in the period of transition between medievalism and the Renaissance. A sharp and rapid shift toward the realistic presentation of figures and space occurred during this period. Gone are the flattened figures and ambiguous spaces of Early Christian and Byzantine art. While medieval artists strove to suggest a strong spirituality and otherworldly character in their work, as was appropriate for art of a highly religious nature directed to a largely illiterate public, Renaissance artists explored ways to suggest actual figures standing in realistic landscapes. In this transitional phase, while artists were relearning the techniques of their classical forerunners, art did not achieve the high degree of realism that became apparent later as the Renaissance progressed, but a major shift in focus and intent was nevertheless apparent.

Perhaps the most important element of this transitional phase, which would affect all aspects of Western society during this period and beyond, was the new emphasis on a humanistic perspective. An increased interest in this world and humanity’s place within it would create new ways of organizing all facets of human endeavor, including politics, economics, philosophy, and art.

Renaissance Humanism

In its broadest description, humanism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of human beings, their actions, and inherent individual value. Humanism as a system of thinking has emerged at various times throughout history. It became a core component of the Renaissance when Italian thinkers of the fourteenth century were exposed to the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Thales of Miletus and Xenophanes of Colophon, the first Greek scholars to take a humanist point of view. Important Italian humanists include Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Braccioloini. These scholars, along with many others of the era, emphasized a new manner of education which focused on subjects we now consider the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. The intention of this system was to produce a thoughtful and engaged populous, able and willing to participate meaningfully in civic life. This educational structure was readily accepted and became standard practice for the Italian upper class through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Italian humanism quickly spread to Northern Europe and helped to set the stage there for the Protestant Reformation.

Portrait of Renaissance humanist scholar Francesco Petrarch, painted c. 1376. Petrarch, along with many scholars of the era, emphasized a new manner of education that aimed to produce a thoughtful and engaged populous, able and willing to participate meaningfully in civic life.

The adoption of humanism demanded a significant shift in European thinking. For people of the Middle Ages, the great difficulties of contemporary life encouraged a focus on religion and the heavenly realm, as opposed to the actual world around them. The people were promised eternal salvation and happiness if they followed the teachings of the Church, which was no doubt quite appealing in contrast with the privations of daily existence. With the shift toward humanism, the focus moved away from the spiritual realm to that of individual existence. With the classical model always in view, Renaissance thinkers began to emphasize the inherent value of each person and to consider the meaningful role each could play in society.

Though humanism emphasized mortal existence and the physical world, this new way of thinking did not discount religious practice. Indeed, religion remained a key component of Renaissance culture. However, attention increasingly turned to the individual’s personal experience of spirituality. Through the study of ancient Christian texts, there was a renewed interest in the life of Jesus and the early martyred saints. An increased focus on the human aspect of Christ’s dual nature was presented in the Church’s teachings and in the visual art used to decorate church structures as well.

One final aspect of the new humanist focus of the Renaissance can be found in an increased emphasis on materialism. Humanism’s celebration of individual effort not only showed itself in educational and spiritual improvement, but also opened the door to baser, more financial concerns. The Renaissance saw the initial development of capitalism as a central economic practice. New ideas of commodities and production insured an increase in affluence across greater segments of society and also advanced a measure of economic disparity that, when later coupled with technological developments during the Industrial Revolution, would eventually help lead to the revolutionary activities of the eighteenth century.

Northern vs. Italian Renaissance Art and Culture

In discussing the Renaissance, a distinction is generally made between Italy and “the North.” Northern Renaissance art and culture are seen as different in many ways from what was occurring in Italy, although there are common influences and connections between the two. “The North” generally refers to Northern European areas such as the Netherlands, France, and Germany, though it has come to more broadly describe any Renaissance activities occurring in parts of Europe outside of Italy.

Perhaps the most important distinction between Northern and Italian Renaissance art is the earlier adoption of oil paints in the North. Oil painting is believed to have been invented in the region, and it greatly impacted the character of art there. The extraordinary degree of detail and rich coloration possible with oils became central features of Northern painting. In contrast, Italian painting, largely in fresco and tempera, was generally more focused on accurate visual and compositional structure, particularly through the development and use of perspective systems.

Another highly significant issue during this period in the North was the Protestant Reformation. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, a German theologian and Augustan monk, nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Catholic church in Wittenberg, Germany. The Theses directly challenged Church practices and were Luther’s attempt to purify the Church of what he saw as its corruptions. Luther, and the Protestant Reformation movement he inspired, called for simple faith and a direct focus on the text of the Bible, rather than reliance on what he thought to be the convoluted rituals of the Church. The Church’s response to this challenge took the form of a reaffirmation of its practices at the Council of Trent in 1545–63 and the advent of the Counter Reformation, which had a tremendous impact on seventeenth-century Baroque art and culture.

Portrait of Martin Luther, 1532. Luther’s Protestant Reformation and the consequent Counter-Reformation had a tremendous impact on seventeenth-century Baroque art and culture.

The Renaissance Era beyond Europe

The rapid changes occurring in Europe during the Renaissance ultimately had an impact on peoples across the globe. Societies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, which were flourishing independently of European civilization, became known to the West during this time. As Western exploration increased, contact and often conflict greatly affected all of the cultures involved.

The European “discovery” of Sub-Saharan Africa occurred during the late fifteenth century. Westerners found hundreds of distinct ethnic and cultural groups in the region, as well as lands rich in mineral and natural resources. Desire for commodities such as gold, ivory, and other resources, as well as economic development elsewhere, would ultimately lead to the exploitation and enslavement of Africans by various Western powers. Asian civilizations were better known to Europeans in the Renaissance era, and trade activities greatly expanded during this time. Islamic art and culture continued to thrive and influenced the West in various ways, as through the introduction of paper (see the discussion of the Decorated pages intended for a Koran). In the Americas, the Aztec and Incan Empires were routed by European powers during this period, and the West began to learn of the other North American cultures that would figure so prominently in the early history of America. All in all, it was a time of great activity on a global level, with the ideals and desires of Renaissance cultures influencing the world far beyond the borders of Europe.

SELECTED WORK

GHENT ALTARPIECE, Jan van Eyck, 1432

Development of Oil Paint

While painting as an artistic technique is as old as prehistoric cave art, the oil paint medium dates only from the Renaissance period. At the most basic level, any painting material includes dried pigments (color) suspended in a liquid material (vehicle or binder). Additional materials, such as solvents and turpentine, may be added to manipulate the viscosity of the paint, but the color and vehicle are the most fundamental components. Throughout history, artists have experimented with various pigment and binding elements, and the different formulas have allowed for diverse painting styles and forms over time.

Oil paint, as its name suggests, uses oil as its vehicle. The most commonly used oil is linseed, though other materials, such as walnut, hemp-seed, and poppy oil may be combined with the pigment. Oil paint was a great technological innovation for its time. In the Renaissance, most painters were working in tempera or fresco. With tempera, the vehicle is egg, and the resulting paintings are characterized by high-keyed color, sharp light effects, and matte surfaces. True fresco technique involves blending pigments with water and then painting the mixture onto a wet plaster wall, resulting in an extremely durable painting, which echoes the visual and color effects of tempera.

One of the most significant differences with the use of oil as a binder is that it necessitates a long drying time as compared to materials such as water and egg. This allows for a great deal of reworking and blending of color as the painting progresses. During this period, oil paint was generally applied in thin layers, or glazes, which allowed for a careful building up of the surface over time. These aspects of oil painting resulted in works that presented a much higher level of detail than was possible with the older, faster-drying techniques. In addition, the use of oil gives a hard, glossy surface to the painting, especially if it is covered with a final layer of varnish to protect its surface. Oil paintings of the Renaissance are characterized by rich color and intense light effects, as well as a great degree of detail.

Portrait of a Man (Self-Portrait?), also known as Portrait of a man in a Red Turban, by Jan van Eyck, 1433. Van Eyck was a great master of oil painting.

There is much debate about the original development of oil paint. While there is evidence of the use of various oil vehicles dating back to the classical era, the material only came into wide use in the fifteenth century. A certain mythology has developed around the idea that Jan van Eyck was its innovator. While van Eyck was certainly a great master of the material, as we will see in our discussion of the Ghent Altarpiece, scholars now agree that it was not his own invention. Research is ongoing in an attempt to determine where and when the technique was established during the Renaissance era.

The Multi-Panel Altar Painting

In addition to the specific paint medium, another significant aspect of a painting is the surface upon which it is applied. In the medieval and Renaissance periods, most paintings were done directly onto a wall, as with fresco, or painted onto wooden panels. As the Renaissance progressed, framed linen canvas became common as a painting support as well. While fresco decorations were typical in churches in the early Renaissance, panel paintings became more and more customary, especially as oil paints evolved. Such paintings were found as decorations, especially in chapels and at church altars, and over time they grew increasingly large and more elaborate.

The preparation of a single-panel painting begins with the creation of a solid wooden form. This panel is coated with a mixture of glues and resin, as well as a layer of linen, all of which together are known as a “size.” Many layers of gesso (binder, chalk, and white pigment) are applied to the size in order to create a smooth, impermeable painting surface. This becomes the ground for the final painting.

Panel paintings may be displayed singularly or in groups. Two panels hinged together create a diptych painting. Three panels, typically with a larger central piece and two smaller “wings” hinged at each side, make up a triptych. Some panel paintings, like the Ghent Altarpiece, are made up of many panels. Such works are typically identified as polyptychs. These large constructions ultimately functioned as freestanding structures placed behind the church altar, at the main focus of devotional attention. They often included moveable sections, which could be manipulated according to the Church calendar and needs of the congregation. The Ghent Altarpiece is perhaps the most famous such work.

Jan van Eyck: Biography and Artistic Career

Jan van Eyck’s birth date and place are unknown, though it is generally believed that he was born prior to 1395, and that he probably came from Maaseik in Belgium. It is thought that he was born of a wealthy family of artists, which included his brothers Hubert and Lambert van Eyck. We do not know about van Eyck’s artistic training, though his skill is indicated by the fact that he served as painter to two different Netherlandish courts. The first formal records relating to him note that he was working in The Hague between 1422 and 1424 for John of Bavaria, ruler of Holland. After the Duke’s death in 1425, van Eyck moved to the court of Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy. Court documents suggest that he served not only as an artist in Philip’s court, but that he undertook diplomatic assignments as well.

The Arnolfini Portrait (1434) is one of van Eyck’s best-known works.

Van Eyck ultimately settled in Bruges where he lived up until his death on July 9, 1441. During his career he worked not only for the court, but also for various city and private patrons. He is particularly known today for his skillful use of oil paints, which for many years he was thought to have invented. His best-known works include the Ghent Altarpiece as well as the Portrait of a Man in a Red Turban (1433) and the Arnolfini Portrait (1434). Many of van Eyck’s works can be identified as he often signed his paintings, which was quite unusual at that time. Upon his death, the artist was buried in the Church of St. Donatian in Bruges, which was later destroyed during the French Revolution. Today, van Eyck is considered one of the best Northern European painters of the fifteenth century.

Ghent Altarpiece: Analysis

The Ghent Altarpiece, in its masterful use of the oil medium, is an exceptional example of Northern Renaissance painting. It is an extremely complex work, both in its physical form and in its iconography. It is a polyptych, originally made up of twenty-one moveable panels, and is a relatively early example of oil painting in the North. The iconography of the altarpiece is unique and centered on the broad theme of the Redemption of Man. The subject matter is also specific to the city of Ghent, a center of wool production since the Middle Ages. Ghent’s patron saint and protector was St. John the Baptist, who is often depicted with a lamb, and he and the Lamb of Christ are major symbols depicted on the altar.

The altarpiece was commissioned by Joos Vijd and his wife, Elisabeth Borluut, for a family chapel in St. Bavo’s Cathedral in Ghent. They sponsored not only the painting, but also the chapel which housed it, the adjoining bay of the cathedral’s ambulatory, and the liturgical equipment for mass to be celebrated in perpetuity, in honor of God, the Virgin Mary and all saints, the donors, and their ancestors. Vijd was a wealthy merchant who would eventually serve as mayor of the city of Ghent. The altar was dedicated by him and his wife on the day of their second son’s baptism.

There is debate about many details of the work, though it is generally agreed that it was begun around 1420. Van Eyck’s brother Hubert is assumed to have designed and painted much of it. Though not well known today, Hubert was quite famous in his time. However, he died in 1426, before the altar could be completed. At Hubert’s death, Jan took over the commission. He worked on the altarpiece from 1426 until 1432.

A commission of this physical scale and with such a degree of detail would necessarily have taken a very long time to complete. Tradition tells that the scepter held by Christ in the central interior panel alone took an entire month to paint. For such a complex narrative, the artist was generally expected to submit designs and concepts to the donor before beginning work. The artist and donor, no doubt with the help of a church advisor, typically worked out the iconography of the painting together. It is likely that a full-scale pattern or model would have been built as well. This was typical with such large religious works at that time. Such a model would have helped the artist and other workers design and build the final altar painting.

One of the most important characteristics of the Ghent Altarpiece, which greatly contributes to its complexity, is the fact that the panels are adjustable and that the painting was intended to be viewed in the opened and closed positions. The exterior panels would have been visible during penitential seasons such as Lent, as well as most weekdays. The dimensions of the work in its closed state are 11’ x 7 ½’. On Sundays and important feast days, the panels would be opened on their hinges, revealing the glorious interior of the work. At 11’ x 15’ opened, the altar presents a particularly imposing and beautiful form.

The altarpiece has many inscriptions in Latin. They are found throughout the work—as individual scroll texts, on the frames of particular panels, on the architectural details painted throughout the altarpiece, and even written on the edges of fabrics worn by figures within the painting. These inscriptions were meant to help educate the viewer, and unlike the purely visual imagery of medieval art, they assume a literate audience. The inscriptions explain the representations or offer points of reference for further commentary on the imagery illustrated. They can also be quite poetic and often rhyme or have alliteration.

One of the most important inscriptions, which provides key identifying information for the work, is on the outer panel. In rhyming Latin it reads, “The painter Hubert van Eyck, than whom none was greater, began [this work], and his brother Jan, second in art, completed the weighty task, at the request of Joos Vijd. On the sixth of May he [Vijd] begs you by means of this verse to take care of what came into being.”⁷ This dedicatory inscription was typical for altar paintings such as this and was primarily intended to preserve the memory of the work’s donor.

The image of this work in the Art Reproductions Booklet shows the panel in its open position. The main image on the closed view of the altar, illustrated across the four upper panels as if set in one continuous room, is the scene of the Annunciation. To the left, the angel Gabriel kneels and speaks to the Virgin Mary, who is positioned in the far right panel. Gabriel’s words are written in text that stretches from his mouth toward her. He says, “Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee.” Mary responds, “Behold the handmaid of the Lord.” This inscription is written upside down, so that her words are legible to God and the Holy Spirit, which is illustrated as a dove hovering over her head. Various symbols are seen throughout, many of which indicate Mary’s purity, such as the lily Gabriel holds and the white linen towel hanging in the panel at center right. The Holy Trinity is suggested by the three rays emanating from the halo of the dove, as well as the small trefoil window in the niche next to the hanging towel. While this is one of the holiest of scenes, in that it pictures the moment that Mary learns that she will give birth to Christ, the view outside the windows of the room is a highly realistic image of the city of Ghent. Architecture and even figures on the street are visible.

Interior of St. Bavo Cathedral, where the Ghent Altarpiece is located.

Photograph by Michal Osmenda.

Above this scene, in the arched areas of the four panels, are two male prophets on the outer panels, and two female sibyls on the inner sections. The Prophet Zacharias on the left points at an inscription on the book he holds, which says, “Exult, Rejoice Greatly, daughter of Sion, behold thy king cometh unto thee.” The Prophet Micha to the right looks down on the Annunciation scene with a text that reads, “Out of thee shall he come forth…who is to be ruler of Israel.” These figures are Old Testament prophets who are said to have prophesied Christ’s ultimate redemption of the world. They are balanced by the sibyl figures, who were female prophetesses from antiquity (and who therefore serve as pagan counterparts to the Old Testament prophets). The inscription illustrated with the Erythraean Sibyl on the left reads “Not offering human words, you are inspired by the divinity from on high,” while the text above the Cumaean Sibyl on the right notes that, “Your king is coming in human shape to rule through future ages.”

The four panels on the lower register of the altar’s exterior depict a series of niches framed by architectural details. The central niches hold figures painted in gray, as if they are sculptural objects. St. John the Baptist is on the left, with St. John the Evangelist to the right. The Baptist carries a lamb in his left hand, which he points to. The Evangelist holds a cup filled with writhing snakes, while making a gesture of blessing with his right hand. The simulated statuary figures are flanked by portraits of the donors, who kneel and hold their hands in prayer position. Joos Vijd and Elisabeth Borluut are painted in full color and as living individuals. Their depiction here insures that they will be present at the church altar for eternity.

The contrast between the closed and open states of the altar is striking. Not only does the scale of the painting increase radically when the panels are opened, but the muted tones of the exterior give way to the incredibly rich color used for the interior paintings. In the central panel of the upper register van Eyck has depicted Christ in Glory. Enthroned as the ruler of the world, in front of a brocaded cloth of honor with his name woven into it, Christ wears a triple tiara crown. The concept of kingship is also suggested by the scepter he holds, the additional crown at his feet, and the inscription running along the edge of his cloak: “King of kings and lord of lords.” Christ is seen frontally and motionless, with his right hand raised in blessing. The inscription on the arches above him reads, “This is God all-powerful in his divine majesty. The supreme, the best because of his loving kindness. The most open-handed provider, because of his measureless generosity.”

In the panel directly to Christ’s right, Mary is depicted, dressed as a bride and seated below the words, “She is more beautiful than the sun and all the army of the stars; compared to the light she is superior. She is truly the reflection of eternal light and a spotless mirror of God.” John the Baptist is positioned on Christ’s left, with the text “This is John the Baptist, greater than man, equal to the angels, summarizer of the law, spreader of the scriptures, voice of the Apostles, silence of the Prophets, lamp of the world, witness of the Lord.” Mary and John are themselves flanked by panels depicting angels, singing and playing musical instruments, with the outermost panels depicting Adam and Eve. Adam and Eve are presented after their fall from grace, which is made evident because they cover their nudity in shame. The small scenes above these nude figures show two narratives from the story of Cain and Abel. Together, these details indicate the purpose of Christ’s sacrifice—the redemption of sinful humanity.

The five lower panels of the interior view present a continuous scene of the Adoration of the Lamb. Throughout a vast landscape view, all segments of humanity are seen to converge on the central altar, upon which stands the lamb, a symbol of sacrifice and emblem of Christ. Blood pours from a wound in the lamb’s chest and is caught in a golden chalice set upon the altar. Hovering high above the lamb, as is seen in the Annunciation exterior panel, van Eyck has depicted a dove radiating light. Angels kneel around the altar, holding instruments of Christ’s passion, such as the cross and the crown of thorns. Others carry implements used in the mass, such as censers. The Fountain of Life is placed in the foreground below the altar, a promise of eternal life to the faithful.

The four panels that border the Adoration scene illustrate the mass of humanity gathering to adore and venerate the symbol of Christ. All classes of society are taking part in the celebration, including figures from antiquity, the Old Testament and the New Testament as well as various saints and Church leaders and all ranks and estates of contemporary Flemish society. The figures are generally identifiable by their costumes, and some are even recognizable as individuals, including the patron saint of Ghent and contemporary popes. These figures are seen amidst an uninterrupted landscape of rich and varied foliage suggestive of an ideal Eden. Architectural details are seen throughout, which illustrate temples, churches, and contemporary architectural forms.

The Ghent Altarpiece is relatively unique in that it continues to be displayed in the cathedral for which it was originally created. Changes have occurred over time, however. Though first installed in the Vijdt chapel, it was moved for security reasons to the main chapel of the church. In addition, the painting was once protected by a baldachin, or carved stone canopy, which has since been lost. The altar also originally sat on a long horizontal panel, known as a predella. This painting, which is believed to have depicted Hell, was lost before 1550. Another panel was stolen in 1934 and was never recovered. It has been replaced with a replica. In addition to these specific losses, the altar has suffered other injuries as well; it has been the victim of poor cleaning processes, it has suffered damage by fire, and it has been dismantled and moved many times. Even with these hazards, the altarpiece is in truly incredible condition and continues to serve as a spectacular example of early oil painting of the Renaissance. [For information on the recent restoration of the Ghent Altarpiece, and to explore the painting in excellent close-up view, see http://closertovaneyck.kikirpa.be/.]

SELECTED WORK

ORNITHOPTER WINGS, Leonardo da Vinci, sketch from the Codex Atlanticus, fol. 309 verso, 1478–1519

Evolving Concept of the “Artist” in the Italian Renaissance

Our contemporary idea of the artist as an independent, creative thinker who uses imagination to create works of aesthetic and conceptual value is actually a relatively recent idea. Up until the Renaissance, the words “art” and “artist” as we use them today did not actually exist. In the medieval period, those who carved sculptures and painted icons were seen as manual craftspeople, whose skill was less valued than the materials they used. Workers were organized into guilds, which were professional associations of workers in a variety of craft and merchant fields. There were guilds for bankers, textile makers, and fishmongers, as well as those in the areas we would now consider to be concerned with the production of art objects.

During the Renaissance, this system began to change. Artists began to argue that their work demonstrated original invention over basic learned skill. Thinkers such as Giorgio Vasari helped support this perspective. Vasari discussed the concept of the creative genius and wrote his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects (1550) in order to argue that the intellectual and social position of artists should be equal to that of the poets and humanists. These discussions, as well as the broadly recognized excellence of art produced during this period, helped to bring about a major shift in thinking about artistic production. It was during the Renaissance era that artists first gained the status and recognition that we bestow on them today.

Technological Advances in the Renaissance

Much important classical knowledge (including the formula and usage of concrete, which we discussed in the previous section) was lost in the Middle Ages. Various technological tools and processes that were of great benefit to the Greeks and Romans were not available in the medieval period. As the Renaissance began to reclaim classical history, philosophy, and art, technology was also greatly advanced. Classical texts presented important ideas, such as Archimedes’ discussions of mechanics and the optical theories of Ptolemy, while the general interest of Renaissance scientists in exploring the physical world led to many discoveries and innovations. This scientific revolution involved new ways of thinking in the areas of mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, and medicine. Significant technological innovations of the Renaissance period inspired by these ideas include the printing press, the nautical compass, the crank and connecting rod, the portable clock, the microscope and the screwdriver, to name just a few.⁸

Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, after 1510. Leonardo’s incredibly wide-ranging abilities were expressed not only in art, but also in various areas of science and practical mechanics.

Leonardo da Vinci: Biography and Career

Leonardo da Vinci was a unique figure in the Renaissance period. It is no accident that the concept of the “Renaissance man” is perhaps most frequently associated with him. His incredibly wide-ranging abilities were expressed not only in art, but also in various areas of science and practical mechanics. Leonardo himself described his broad skill set in a letter he wrote to Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan:

And in short, according to the variety of cases, I can contrive various and endless means of offence and defense…. In time of peace I believe I can give perfect satisfaction bearing comparison with anyone else, in architecture, in the designing of buildings, public and private, and in conducting water from one place to another…. I can carry out sculpture in marble, bronze or clay, and also I can do in painting whatever can be done to stand in comparison with anyone else, be he who he may.⁹

Indeed, Leonardo is today widely noted for his almost superhuman mind and significant achievements in many areas of human activity.

Leonardo was born at Vinci in Italy, on April 15, 1452. His father, Ser Piero da Vinci, was a notary and was not married to his mother, a woman of the peasant class. After the age of five, Leonardo was raised and educated by his father’s family. At age fourteen, he was accepted into the Florentine studio of the artist Verrocchio, where he learned the technical aspects of painting, sculpture, and the mechanical arts. In 1472 he qualified as a master with the Guild of St. Luke, which was the association for artists and medical doctors in Florence.

Leonardo left Verrocchio’s studio and relocated to Milan in 1482. There he worked for the duke, for whom he had laid out his talents in the letter quoted above. He also received other commissions during this period, including that of his Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and his famous Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria dell Grazie. He traveled to various Italian cities throughout his career, working as an artist and engineer in Venice, Florence, and Cesena, and for patrons such Cesare Borgia, who was the son of Pope Alexander VI, and Pope Leo X. Leonardo’s final patron was King Francis I of France. It was in Francis’ court at Amboise that Leonardo died on May 2, 1519, at the age of sixty-seven.

Da Vinci’s The Last Supper, painted for the monastery of Santa Maria dell Grazie, is one of his most well-known works.

Ornithopter Wings: Analysis

In addition to his accomplished paintings in fresco and oil, Leonardo is also particularly renowned for his drawings. In hundreds of notebooks and sketches we can see his wide-ranging interests and close study of the natural world. Indeed, even his most strictly scientific drawings are art in themselves. The notebooks deal with civic and military engineering projects, as well as applied mechanics, such as the laws of motion and power transmission. He studied water flowing and light effects within landscapes and sketched the human body incessantly. The notebooks include illustrations of block and pulley mechanisms, optical and hydraulic studies, weaponry such as artillery and cross-bows, bridges, wagons, mechanical saws, architectural sketches, botanical studies, as well as anatomical studies, figures, and caricatures. Through this body of imagery, Leonardo worked out a variety of ideas and theoretical problems, and studying them allows us to gain great insight into his artistic process.

The drawing of Ornithopter Wings shown in your Art Reproductions Booklet is taken from the Codex Atlanticus, a twelve-volume manuscript that includes over a thousand pages of drawings by Leonardo. The Codex, which is subtitled “Designs of Machines and Secret Arts and Other Things of Leonardo da Vinci Collected by Pompeo Leoni,” was assembled from various loose pages and notebooks after Leonardo’s death. When the artist died, he left to his student “Messer Francesco Melzi, gentleman of Milan, in remuneration of his services gratuitously performed by him in the past, whatever books the testator may at present possess and all other instruments and manuscripts touching and relating to his art and profession of painting.”¹⁰ From these materials, Melzi wrote his Treatise on Painting (1651). After Melzi’s death, his son Orazio dispersed the manuscripts, many of which he transferred to Pompeo Leoni. It was Leoni who built the Codex, which was acquired in 1636 by the Ambrosian Library, where it is held today.

The Ornithopter Wings sketch is one of many Leonardo drew related to the concept of flight. He was greatly interested in creating a machine that would allow humans to fly, and he designed many versions of such a mechanism. In order to do so, he first looked carefully at nature, specifically at birds. Throughout the notebooks Leonardo sketched many studies of the anatomy of birds, as well as birds in flight. He watched how birds turn and control their bodies, how they soar, and how they flap their wings. He also analyzed the movement of wind and considered air resistance. From all of these analyses, he developed various artificial wing systems. It is clear in examining this body of materials that Leonardo understood well the concepts of gliding and soaring, but he didn’t know how to translate that into artificial flight.

Leonardo’s designs, like the one illustrated in your Art Reproductions Booklet, focused on a flapping mechanism. Unfortunately, his plan was not successful; as we know today, the key to human flight is the use of a fixed wing device and the exploitation of airflow and lift as a plane moves through space. Flapping to achieve flight is impossible for humans, as there is a significant disparity in muscular power relative to body weight: unlike birds, we weigh far too much in comparison to our strength to ever manage to sustain ourselves through flapping, particularly with the potential added weight of a flying machine. In addition, Leonardo apparently did not understand how birds actually flap their wings. In one of his notebooks he observed that “a bird makes the same use of wings and tail in the air as a swimmer does of his arms and legs in the water.”¹¹ This is actually incorrect. Bird flight is significantly more complex and involves not just flapping, but also the simultaneous twisting and folding of the wings. Birds move their wings quickly, and clearly Leonardo was not able to see the movement accurately using simple visual observation.

A drawing by Leonardo showing an anatomical study of the arm, c.1510. Leonardo is particularly renowned for his drawings, and they reflect his wide-ranging interests and close study of the natural world.

Leonardo’s visions for flying structures evolved over time. He explored many versions of this idea, using various pulleys, joints, articulations, and cranks. He envisioned wings attached to the body. He then imagined a machine attached to the back with the pilot lying prone, and later with the pilot in various seated and standing poses. The structure could be controlled by direct flapping of the pilot’s arms or by manipulation of various mechanisms, by hand or by head and neck. He considered materials such as silk, pasteboard, twilled cloth, starched taffeta, cane ribs, and pine planks, as well as various springs and cord pieces. All of these concepts are worked out in the many sketches and designs he drew.

We are not certain whether or not Leonardo built models of any of his flying apparatuses, and if he did, whether or not he tried to fly them. However, we do know that he certainly imagined it. His manuscript On the Flight of Birds (1505), a thirty-page notebook now in the Royal Library of Turin, envisioned his machine, which he referred to as the “great bird,” taking flight “and filling the world with stupor and all writings with renown and bringing glory to the nest where it was born.”¹² Fortunately for any potential pilot, Leonardo was well aware of the need for safety precautions. He proposed testing his machine first over a lake and recommended to any pilot that he “should carry a long wineskin as a girdle, so that in case you fall you will not be drowned.”¹³

The flying machine designs are one of the few true failures we see in Leonardo’s sketchbooks. In spite of the plan’s failure, this image and others like it illustrate the complexity of his thinking in working through a problem, and in that we can certainly find great value. This general spirit of exploration and experimentation in the Renaissance age was vital to Leonardo’s other, more successful innovations and to additional later advances in the realm of aeronautics. [While Leonardo’s flying machines may not have functioned in the real world, one made an appearance in the video game Assassin’s Creed II (2009). To see the machine flying over the city of Venice, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ORGVc1Sg7e8.]

SELECTED WORK

THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS, Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio), c. 1508–11

Development of Linear and Atmospheric Perspective in the Renaissance

Two major artistic innovations of the Renaissance, which greatly aided the cause of naturalism in two-dimensional art, were the development of atmospheric and linear perspective. Both of these systems of representation allowed artists to create a convincing representation of real space within a landscape scene. Both were quickly adopted by artists of the period, who continued to develop increasingly true-to-life forms using these techniques.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), whose solution to doming the cathedral in Florence will be discussed shortly, is seen as the inventor of linear perspective in the Renaissance.¹⁴ As with so many significant innovators of the period, he was inspired by the study of ancient texts, specifically those by Euclid and Ptolemy describing mathematical laws. Using these theoretical manuscripts, and perhaps through the process of attempting to sketch ancient ruins in Rome accurately, Brunelleschi developed the elements of linear perspective: horizon line, vanishing point, and orthogonal lines. Brunelleschi’s basic idea was that a mathematical system could be used to organize an image and determine the relative scale of objects within it. He began with a horizon line to mark the location of the horizon in the distance of the image. On that line, he marked a vanishing point, usually at the center of the horizon, which would serve as the ideal point of view when looking at the scene. Finally, he drew a series of diagonal orthogonal lines from the edges of the picture to the vanishing point. The resulting grid became the underlying organizational structure of the image, and the scale of all of the details within the work was then determined by that grid.

In approximately 1420, Brunelleschi created a visual demonstration of the linear perspective concept, which illustrated that it could indeed recreate a perfect image of real, three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. Brunelleschi painted an image (now lost) of the piazza of the Baptistery of Florence using his linear perspective system. He drilled a hole in the center of the panel at the vanishing point. Brunelleschi then positioned a viewer at the same location within the piazza from which he had painted the scene. The viewer was directed to hold up the painting, turn it to face the Baptistery, and look through the drilled hole at the back. The viewer was then instructed to hold a mirror up in front of the painting. In this way, the viewer was able to see Brunelleschi’s painting reflected in the mirror, and then drop the mirror and see the actual piazza view through the drilled hole. In comparing the two, the viewer was convinced of the accuracy of the image and thus Brunelleschi’s method. While Brunelleschi was the first to demonstrate the principles of linear perspective, it was not formally systematized until Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72) wrote what was effectively an artists’ manual explaining the process in his 1436 text On Painting. [To see a short video recreating Brunelleschi’s visual demonstration, see http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/Brunelleschi.html?searched=brunelleschi&highlight=ajaxSearch_highlight+ajaxSearch_highlight1.]

Atmospheric perspective (also known as aerial perspective) is the technique of suggesting depth within a painting by depicting distant objects in softer focus, with less detail and paler colors. Atmospheric perspective visually recreates the optical reality we experience when we see a distant view, where light is scattered across a vista by naturally occurring particles in the air, such as smoke and water vapor. This technique is particularly effective in landscape views, where an artist wants to show a deep recession into space. While linear perspective relies on orthogonal lines to achieve this effect, in atmospheric perspective the presentation is subtler and less precisely measured. Atmospheric perspective can be seen in some ancient frescos, such as landscape scenes from Pompeii, but it was first widely used in paintings during the early Northern Renaissance in the fifteenth century. Descriptions and explanations of the technique were written during this period by artists such as Leon Battista Alberti and Leonardo da Vinci.

In approximately 1420, Brunelleschi created a visual demonstration of the linear perspective concept, which illustrated that it could indeed recreate a perfect image of real, three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface.

Fresco Painting

Fresco painting was a major element of Italian Renaissance art, particularly in its early phase. Fresco is a type of mural or wall painting in which the artist paints directly onto a wet plaster wall. As the fresco dries, the pigment becomes embedded into the fabric of the wall, thus creating an extremely durable and long-lasting image. While many Renaissance artists mastered the fresco technique, this painting method had been used since antiquity. Many examples exist from Greek art, particularly from the Minoan period on the island of Crete, where the Palace at Knossos was highly decorated with fresco. The Romans embellished their domestic architecture with this technique, and many frescoes may be found in ancient caves, palaces, and temples in India and Mexico. In more recent times, fresco was used by the Mexican Muralists and by American artists working for the Works Progress Administration during the 1920s and 30s.

The word fresco originates from the Italian word “fresco,” meaning “fresh.” The basic process just described is considered true fresco, or buon fresco. In true fresco, the entire wall is roughly plastered and prepared for painting. The artist sketches an image directly onto this under layer or may transfer a full-scale preparatory cartoon of the work to the wall. To do so, the lines of the sketch are pricked with holes. The sketch is held against the wall, and a bag of chalk or ash (the spolvero) is hit along the drawing, leaving a line of dots on the wall which will serve as a design guide for the artist. Each day, before work on the painting is undertaken, a thin layer of fine wet lime plaster, called the intonaco, is applied to the wall in the area that will be worked for the day. This area is known as the giornata or “day’s work,” and pigment that has been mixed with water is painted into this layer during the course of the painting session. A major challenge in true fresco is that the painting area must be completed before the giornata area has dried. Only then will the pigment become fully set into the wall. If the giornata is not completed in time, or if any mistakes are made, the area must be scraped clean and the process repeated. Another fresco technique—fresco à secco, or “dry fresco”—involves painting onto the surface of a dry plaster wall. This method does not exhibit the same durability as true fresco, as the pigments do not bind to the wall in the same way. Both techniques were used during the Renaissance period, often in conjunction with each other in the same painting.

Raphael: Biography and Artistic Career

Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino was born into an artistic family on April 6 or March 28, 1483. His father, Giovanni Santi, was a painter in the court of Federico da Montefeltro, the Duke of Urbino. Raphael’s formal artistic career began at age twelve in the workshop of Perugino. He left Urbino to work in Florence in 1504, where he painted many of his famous Virgin and Child images and received a variety of commissions for altar paintings and portraits.

Raphael’s reputation had grown to such a degree by this time that he was called to Rome by Pope Julius II in 1508 to help decorate the Pope’s private apartments at the Vatican. Raphael ultimately completed a number of works at the Vatican and undertook many other projects for private patrons in Rome as well. In addition to his painting, Raphael worked as an architect, designing churches, mansions, and palaces. He succeeded Donato Bramante as chief architect of the Vatican in 1514. He is known for various works in tapestry as well as drawing and printmaking.

Probable self-portrait drawing by Raphael in his early teens, 1490s.

Raphael became unexpectedly ill in late March of 1520, and fifteen days later, on April 6th, he died. He was only thirty-seven years old. While his career was cut short very early, his artistic status, which was already well established in his lifetime, only continued to grow after his death. Today he is considered one of the most important artists of the Italian Renaissance.

The School of Athens: Analysis

After arriving in Rome at the behest of Pope Julius II, Raphael’s first commission was to assist in the redecoration of the papal apartments at the Vatican. Pope Julius II, who ruled the Church from 1503–13, had moved his private quarters within the Vatican palace to new rooms in November of 1507. Many artists contributed to the redecoration of these spaces, and the work continued under the leadership of Julius’ successor, Leo X, after Julius’ death in 1513. Raphael’s contribution to the project was finally completed in 1524, after the artist’s own death in 1520.

The School of Athens is one of four frescoes Raphael created for this chamber. Although the room is today known as the Stanza della Segnatura, that was not the case at the time of the commission. Vasari identified the room in this way when discussing the frescoes in his Lives because by the 1540s, when he was writing his history of Renaissance art, it was the room where the Pope signed important documents. This point is an important one because in order to understand the meaning of the fresco cycle, it is necessary to understand how the space was used when the paintings were conceived. In the early 1500s when Raphael began the decorations, the room held Julius’s personal library.

Julius’s books were organized into four groups, according to the main branches of human knowledge recognized at that time. The frescoes correspond to these four categories and are placed above the appropriate portion of the book collection. In this way, the books and frescos together sum up Western learning as it was known in the Renaissance. On the longer walls of the rectilinear space, which held the bulk of the texts, were the larger frescos Philosophy and Theology, while the shorter walls presented Poetry and Law. These titles were used by Raphael to identify the works, but today we know the paintings by different names: Law is now Jurisprudence, Poetry is Parnassus, Theology is The Disputa, and Philosophy is The School of Athens.

All of the frescos present scenes based on the “Famous Men” (uomini famosi) prototype. This type of gathering, which echoes contemporary sacra conversazione or “sacred conversation” altarpieces, displays a group of important individuals together within a unified space. The uomini famosi model would have been familiar to Raphael, as it was typical for library decoration at the time. Two Renaissance examples in particular may have been known to him: the Duke of Urbino’s Studiolo (in Urbino, Raphael’s birthplace) and the Collegio del Cambio in Perugia (which he may have helped Perugino to paint). These examples similarly show a grouping of individuals, and in each case, the men stand plainly in view, labeled with their names for easy identification.

Raphael completely transformed this model; his images instead present figures in dynamic conversation with each other. Their poses are lively, and their interactions suggest individual personalities and manners. The artist also avoided identifying notations, and so leaves the work of identifying the figures up to the viewer. We assume that Raphael’s patron would have given specific instructions as to the iconography of these paintings, including lists of the figures to illustrate. The way in which Raphael was able to enliven this fairly straightforward directive is a true testament to his artistic skill and indicates a highly sophisticated and educated audience.

The School of Athens is the most famous of the frescos. It illustrates a plaza filled with all of the known philosophers and scientists of the ancient world—the men whose wisdom continued to be rediscovered throughout the Renaissance. The architectural space is clearly classical in inspiration. Above are a series of three massive, coffered barrel vaults that echo the ruined ancient baths and basilicas that were still visible in the heart of Rome. The plaza is decorated with classical statuary, including flanking colossal figures of Apollo and Athena, patron gods of the arts and wisdom. The architecture is clearly organized using linear perspective. Orthogonal lines run through the vaulting as well as the stonework of the flooring. Raphael also employed atmospheric perspective, which can be seen in the gradual lightening of the blue in the sky as the space recedes.

The Stanza della Segnatura. The School of Athens is one of four frescoes Raphael created for this chamber.

Within this vast and beautiful space are gathered dozens of figures, each presented as an individual character with his physical features, costuming, and posture. Many are in concentrated and energetic conversation, while others appear more pensive and psychologically isolated within the space. At the center of the assembly, and at the epicenter of the fresco, we see Plato and Aristotle. These men are clearly silhouetted against the sky in the distance and the vanishing point of the composition is located between their heads. Plato is seen on the left, bald and with a long gray beard. He holds his book, Timaeus, in his left hand, and points upward with his right. On the right, Aristotle, with darker hair and beard, holds his own Ethics in his left hand, and gestures, hand flattened and palm downward, with his right. These distinct motions indicate divergent perspectives, one heavenly and the other worldly, which can be seen to sum up the philosophical ideas of the two men.

Arranged in a large, elliptical form around the central figures are other important classical thinkers. Those philosophers concerned with the ultimate mysteries transcending this world are to the left, on Plato’s side of the fresco, while those concerned with nature and the affairs of men are with Aristotle on the right. It is believed that each figure represents a specific individual, though there is much debate regarding who each one might be. Some generally accepted identifications include Socrates, who is seen in the group at the base of the Apollo statue to the left. He ticks points off on his fingers as he defends an argument to the figures around him—enacting the Socratic method of learning. In the right foreground, Euclid is seen holding calipers and demonstrating a theorem for a group of students. Each member of the group illustrates a different moment of coming to an understanding of the mathematician’s instruction—their gestures and facial expressions show that each is at a different phase of the process. Pythagoras is seated and writing at the lower left while a young figure holds up an image of a harmonic scale. The Cynic philosopher Diogenes is seen sprawled on the steps toward the center of the painting.

Another important aspect of the fresco is that it is believed that Raphael included a number of his contemporaries in the painting. For example, it has been suggested that the Euclid figure is a portrait of the architect Bramante. The foreground figure, who glumly rests his head on his hand in the traditional pose of melancholy, is possibly a representation of Raphael’s contemporary, Michelangelo, in the guise of the philosopher Heraclitus. At the extreme right, we see a self-portrait of the artist, who looks directly out at the viewer (as he would have done in looking at himself in a mirror to create the likeness). This inclusion of contemporary thinkers in the form of their classical precursors is an extremely elegant illustration of the Renaissance itself. Overall, the School of Athens is one of the most significant frescoes of the era. It not only demonstrates the high level of technical skill and aesthetic beauty we have come to expect from art of this period, but it also sums up, in so many aspects of its visual and conceptual form, the most important ideas of the age.

SELECTED WORK

DOME OF FLORENCE CATHEDRAL, Filippo Brunelleschi, 1420–36

Early Construction of the Cathedral

One of the greatest architectural feats of the Renaissance was Filippo Brunelleschi’s successful doming of the Cathedral in Florence. The architect’s challenge was not to design the form itself—this had already been determined by earlier planners—it was to work out how the design could actually be executed. The planned structure was to be of such massive scale that contemporary engineering was not able to handle the basic problems of its construction. Brunelleschi’s brilliance was in his ability to innovate new technologies and processes to complete the building. His designs would help many later architects develop and build their own architectural marvels.

At the time that Brunelleschi received the commission to erect the dome, the Cathedral had already been under construction for more than a hundred years. Maria del Fiore (Our Lady of the Flower) was intended to be the largest, most richly decorated cathedral in Italy. This symbol of Florence’s civic and religious pride replaced the old, dilapidated church of Santa Reparata, which dated from the sixth century. The foundations for the new cathedral were laid in 1296, under the direction of the original Florentine architect, Arnolfo di Cambio. Arnolfo had previously built the Palazzo Vecchio as well as the city’s fortifications. Unfortunately, he died soon after construction began. Over time, several architects were charged with the project, which progressed in fits and starts for the next fifty years. By 1355, the façade and nave walls had been completed, and by 1366 the nave had been vaulted, and the east end of church, including the dome, was ready to be built.

Since the 1330s, the building and funding of the cathedral was the responsibility of the wool merchant guild, the largest, wealthiest, and most powerful association in the city. The guild hired various architectural groups to plan the dome and eventually settled on a design by the master mason Neri di Fioravanti. Neri proposed that the dome be constructed without the use of flying buttresses, but rather with rings of stone or wood around the exterior for support. The selection of this design was truly a leap of faith, as nothing like it had been constructed before. The proposed structure would be just over 143 feet in diameter, larger than the dome of the Pantheon. With the walls of the cathedral already reaching 140 feet high, and a thirty-foot drum positioned for the dome to sit on, the dome’s vaulting would begin at 170 feet off the ground. The highest cathedral at that time was the Cathedral Saint-Pierre at Beauvais, which reached a total maximum height of 157 feet. In addition, the plan called for two nested domes, a taller exterior dome shielding a shorter interior one, and the overall shape was to be a pointed form, rather than a simple rounded hemisphere. Neri’s model for the dome, which was itself fifteen feet high and thirty feet long, was put on permanent display in the cathedral, and members of the community swore an annual oath upon it that the dome would be completed to the model’s specifications.

Brunelleschi: Early Biography and Artistic Career

Filippo Brunelleschi was born in 1377. His father, Ser Brunellesco di Lippo Lappi, was a notary. Brunelleschi was apprenticed to the workshop of a family friend at fifteen years of age. The goldsmith Benincasa Lotti trained him, and Brunelleschi became a master goldsmith and clockmaker in 1398 at the age of twenty-one.

In 1401, Brunelleschi competed for the commission to sculpt the doors of the Florence Baptistery. The contest, one of the most prestigious of the Early Renaissance, involved the creation of a relief panel on the Old Testament theme of the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. Brunelleschi was one of seven sculptors invited to participate. In the end, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who was younger than Brunelleschi and had not been trained as a sculptor, was awarded the commission. The mythology surrounding the competition asserts that after losing to Ghiberti, Brunelleschi renounced sculpture in disgust and left for Rome, where he did careful studies of the ancient ruins there. He eventually returned to Florence in 1416 or 1417, where he worked on various architectural commissions, such as the Ospedale degli Innocenti (1419–c. 1445), the Pazzi Chapel (1441–61), and the church of Santo Spirito (1441–81), as well as the Florence Cathedral which we will look at in depth here.

In addition to his architectural works, Brunelleschi is celebrated as the inventor of linear perspective. He is generally considered the most important architect of the Early Renaissance, and after his death on April 15, 1446, the city of Florence honored him by burying the architect in the cathedral he spent more than twenty-five years helping to complete. The inscription on his tomb reads, “Here lies the body of the great ingenious man Filippo Brunelleschi of Florence.”

The Solution for the Dome of Florence Cathedral

On August 19, 1418, an announcement was made in Florence: “Whoever desires to make any model or design for the vaulting of the main Dome of the Cathedral under construction by the Opera del Duomo—for armature, scaffold, or other thing, or any lifting device pertaining to the construction and perfection of said cupola or vault—shall do so before the end of the month of September. If the model be used he shall be entitled to a payment of 200 gold Florins.”¹⁵ The competition inspired more than twelve models, including one by Brunelleschi and another by his old rival, Ghiberti. In the end, both architects were elected capomaestro, or “architect in chief” for the project, though it was Brunelleschi’s model that would guide the work, which began on August 7, 1420.

A statue of Filippo Brunelleschi, which gazes up at the Dome of the Florence Cathedral.

Brunelleschi competed for the commission to sculpt the doors of the Florence Baptistery, but the commission was awarded to Lorenzo Ghiberti.

As the notice indicates, there were two major problems that needed to be solved for the project. First, a design for the temporary wooden support (centering) necessary to hold the dome’s masonry in place as it was being set had to be developed. The second issue was how to lift to such great heights the incredible amount of sandstone and marble that the construction of such a large dome would require. The Dome plan was indeed the grandest, tallest, and widest ever. The difficulty was that no one in Italy had any idea how to actually build it.

Brunelleschi’s proposal included details that echo the construction of the Pantheon in Rome. His inner dome would taper in width as it ascended, beginning at seven feet and narrowing to five at the pinnacle. The outer shell dome would begin at slightly over two feet in width at the base and would thin to just over one foot wide at the top. For the construction materials, sandstone would be used for the first forty-six feet of height, and then the building material would shift from there to brick or tufa, a light limestone. The horizontal interior rings, made of stone, would be buried the masonry construction and would therefore be invisible, and eight vertical ribs would be placed on the exterior to further buttress the form.

A drawing of the construction of the dome of Florence Cathedral, with hoisting machines designed by Brunelleschi.

As to the main construction problems, the issue of the centering was indeed challenging. Even obtaining an adequate amount of lumber to create the supports would be problematic. In addition, the centering would no doubt take up a massive amount of space, thus making it difficult for the masons to lay the stone. Brunelleschi’s scheme, amazingly, recommended that no centering be used at all. And he refused to explain how he would manage to build the dome without it. The architect and commissioners came to a compromise. They agreed to build up to approximately fifty-seven feet and then to decide how to proceed from there.¹⁶

If the centering problem was a challenge, the problem of lifting the construction materials was no less daunting. Hundreds of sandstone beams, weighing approximately 1,700 pounds each, needed to be lifted into the dome. The hoist mechanism that Brunelleschi designed was one of the most celebrated machines of the Renaissance. Unlike earlier machines of this type, which used human power, his mechanism was driven by oxen. It was extremely large in size and complex in design. It included a series of cogged wheels on a fifteen-foot-high frame, as well as a reversible gear, for which no precedent existed at the time. Using this machine, one ox could raise a thousand-pound load two hundred feet up in the air in thirteen minutes.¹⁷

Brunelleschi’s careful planning insured that the project would succeed. As the dome ascended, the series of interior sandstone and wooden chains encircling it at regular intervals kept the form stable, even without the use of centering supports. The custom designed brick shapes, as well as the herringbone pattern in which they were laid out, also contributed to the dome’s overall structural integrity. The Dome was consecrated on March 25, 1436. At that point, only the finishing was left to complete, including the exterior surfacing, with terracotta tiles and colored marble facing, and the addition of the lantern at the pinnacle. Brunelleschi died before he could see these final touches completed, though they were well underway at his death. [For a video showing the experience of climbing up to the top of the Dome, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvNG6pYzruo.]

Brunelleschi: Legacy and Later Influence

While Brunelleschi is known for many significant early Renaissance buildings, it is his work on the Dome of the Florence Cathedral that has had the greatest lasting impact. Various aspects of the project have been carefully studied over time. Leonardo sketched and learned much from Brunelleschi’s hoist machine. Many later dome lanterns, such as the one on St. Peter’s in Rome, were inspired by Brunelleschi’s example in Florence. In fact, when Michelangelo was first awarded the architectural commission for St Peter’s, he visited Florence to gain insight from Brunelleschi’s example.

Another, broader impact that the dome had was on the development of astronomy. After the lantern was installed, Paolo Toscanelli positioned a bronze plate at its base. As sunlight passed through an aperture pierced at the center of the plate, it fell three hundred feet onto a gauge Toscanelli installed in the cathedral’s floor. This instrument, which tracked the movement of the sun over the course of the year, helped determine the summer solstice and vernal equinox dates, which aided in setting the Church calendar more accurately. It was also central to the development of astronomical tools, such as instruments for sea navigation.

Lantern of the Dome of Florence Cathedral. Many later dome lanterns, such as the one on St. Peter’s in Rome, were inspired by Brunelleschi’s example in Florence.

In the Middle Ages, architects were anonymous and generally unrecognized. Brunelleschi’s accomplishments helped shift thinking about architecture, transforming it from a mechanical to a liberal art. His amazing feat in successfully completing the dome for Maria del Fiore is truly one of the most significant contributions to the history of Western architecture.

SELECTED WORK

DECORATED PAGES INTENDED FOR A KORAN, Central Asia/Turkey, c. 1500

Development of Paper in China

The development of paper, a seemingly simple material, was actually one of the most significant technological advancements in human history. Not only did it allow for the transfer of knowledge through writing, rather than oral narration, it also brought about new methods of thinking in areas such as math, economics, mapmaking, and music. Once people were able to permanently record and transmit information, they were able to actually reason in innovative ways as well.

Paper is a thin, flexible material made by matting and intertwining vegetable fibers, such as hemp, jute, or bamboo. The raw material is ground or crushed into a pulp, to which water is added to form a slurry. This material is set onto a frame or screen, which allows the water to drain off. When only the fiber layer is left, it is removed from the frame, pressed, and fully dried. Many other writing surfaces have been made from plant materials, such as papyrus from reeds, tapa and amate from tree barks, and “rice paper” from the pith of the rice-paper plant in China. Animal materials, such as sheep, goat, or calf skins have been used as well in the production of parchment and vellum. However, true paper consists of fibers that have been pulped so that each fiber constitutes a separate unit. In contrast, papyrus, for example, was created in ancient Egypt by cutting strips of reeds, laying them on a board, and pressing or hammering them together.

Oldest surviving book on paper (250 CE), the Phi Yü Ching on “liu-ho” paper made in Liu-ho in northern Chiangsu. It is believed that paper was invented in China, along with the development of the brush as a writing tool.

As paper is a delicate material, it is difficult to determine when it was first created. It is possible that the very first examples were simply not durable enough to last through time. It seems that paper has been in use for at least the last two thousand years. The earliest existing fragments were discovered in China, at Lop-Nor in 1901. The fragments found there by the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin have been dated to approximately 250 CE.¹⁸ It is believed that paper was invented in China, along with the development of the brush as a writing tool. The Chinese had previously used silk as a writing material, but it was too expensive for this purpose. The first Chinese papermaker mentioned in the written record is the Chinese eunuch Ts’ai Lun, who reported to his emperor Ho-ti that he had successfully made paper.

The methods of paper production were a carefully guarded secret in China up until the beginning of the seventh century, when paper first began to appear in Korea and Japan. Linen paper was first manufactured in the Eastern Mediterranean region in the tenth century. The oldest papers in Europe were produced at approximately the same time in Spain, where they were introduced by the Muslim Arabs who produced their papers using the techniques they had learned from the Chinese.

Paper in the Islamic World

Muslim Arab armies from the Near East (the region roughly comprising the Arabian Peninsula, including present-day Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey) conquered Central Asia in the eighth century. It was at this time that they were introduced to paper and its production. While Chinese paper was manufactured using plant materials, paper in the Islamic world was made from used rags. The plants cultivated in Asia could not be grown in the Near Eastern desert, and so Muslim papermakers had to use different raw materials. It was the Arabs who brought paper, and the technique of producing it using discarded scraps of cloth, to Europe.

Paper and the Printing Press in Europe

Paper was well established in Europe by the mid-eleventh century. The earliest centers of paper production were in Spain, though papermaking quickly moved to Italy, where paper was manufactured in Sicily, Venice, Milan, and Genoa, and beyond. It was in Europe that paper was first produced by machine. This early form of mass production eventually led to the invention of the printing press in Europe.

Mechanical printing was desirable as it could perform the work of a traditional scribe more quickly. Prior to the mid-fifteenth century, all books in Europe had been written by hand, typically in monasteries. In addition to the potential for errors in hand copying, the process was incredibly laborious and painstaking.

The first printing processes involved the use of wooden blocks carved to print an entire page at once. The major innovation that occurred in Renaissance Europe was the development of moveable type, or interchangeable letters, which could be set individually into a frame for printing. The letters could thus be used, reset, and then used again in an infinite number of configurations. This typographic printing method was invented by Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany (c. 1398–1468), who first used his creation to print his famed Gutenberg Bible in the 1450s. Of the original two hundred copies he printed, thirty-five on parchment and 165 on paper, only forty-eight survive.

Gutenberg worked at the mint in Mainz, and so he was familiar with the casting techniques he would use to create his lead letters. He used ink made from pigment grounded in linseed-oil varnish, which allowed for smooth lettering, and devised a press sometime around the year 1440 to evenly stamp the lettering to paper. Gutenberg’s press employed a screw mechanism, like those used at the time to crush grapes for wine. This design created a faster, more consistent transfer. Before the development of Gutenberg’s press, the print transfer was created through a process of friction and rubbing.

A sixteenth-century copper engraving of Johannes Gutenberg.

Decorated pages intended for a Koran: Analysis

The Koran is the most sacred text in the Muslim faith. It presents the words of the revelation of God, delivered in Arabic to the prophet Muhammad in the early seventh century. Unlike Gutenberg’s Bible, this text is hand written. The use of a mechanical process to produce this and other sacred manuscripts of Muslim religious practice was forbidden. The first published Koran was printed by Paganino de’ Paganini in Venice in 1538, for use by Christian missionaries working in the Arab East.¹⁹ In fact, the printing press did not arrive in the Arab world until the eighteenth century.

Most early Islamic books are Korans, which no doubt reflects their preciousness. They were created and then carefully protected as sacred and expensive objects. Even with the existence of these books, however, the experience of the Koran is still primarily through oral recitation. The physical text exists merely as a memory aid for this recitation, and a significant goal in Islamic culture is to become a hafiz, or “guardian”—one who knows the entire text of the Koran by heart.

Though the physical form of the text is not its most important element, Korans were nonetheless very carefully and beautifully designed. The written word is presented in an elaborate calligraphy form, a key aspect of Muslim art and culture. Throughout the Islamic world, the language and script used is relatively uniform. It became highly decorative over time and developed into an art in and of itself. This calligraphy was used not only for texts such as the Koran, but was also employed in architectural decoration. While the Koran does not explicitly ban the use of images of living people and animals in sacred spaces, a prohibition against such visual forms was eventually laid out. Restrictions on figurative forms in paintings, books, and buildings perhaps led to a more sumptuous use of the textual elements that were permitted. [To see examples of contemporary art using calligraphy, as presented in the 2011 exhibition “Arabic Calligraphy: The Art of the Written Word,” at the Lahd Gallery in London, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98P4fmD7jyE.]

The two pages pictured in the Art Reproductions Booklet, which measure approximately 8” x 8 ½”, may or may not have been bound into a complete Koran. It appears as if there is calligraphic text under the grid painted at the center of each page. These pages may be an example of intended reuse, for another Koran or other ornamented manuscript.

The specific decoration we see here, including rich gold and blue color, as well as elaborate scroll embellishments, is typical for the opening pages of Korans produced during the 1500s in Turkey. The beautiful patterning and detailed decoration are appropriately fine as vehicles for the words of the Prophet. Though these pages do not clearly illustrate the calligraphic text of the Koran, and are not bound together to form a complete copy of the holy text, the fact that they are loose actually allows us to see and appreciate them better than if they were part of a finished manuscript. In this incomplete state, we can imagine them as part of a highly elaborated whole and appreciate the care and attention used to produced finished versions of the text of the Koran.

A page from an Egyptian Koran from the fourteenth or fifteenth century.

Section III Summary

images “Renaissance” translates as “rebirth,” and in the field of art history it refers to the reemergence of the ideals of classical antiquity during the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries.

images When we discuss the Renaissance, we generally focus on Western Europe, though this was a time of great change on a global level, and important transformations were occurring throughout Africa, Asia, and the Americas as well.

images This era is also known as the Age of Discovery, as there were huge advances in technology, science, and the physical exploration of the globe.

images Greek and Roman sources in the areas of politics, literature, philosophy, and art were rediscovered and celebrated during the Renaissance.

images Key visual elements of Renaissance art include the return to naturalism and the use of elements such as atmospheric and linear perspective, as well as oil paints, to achieve it.

images The Renaissance developed out of the Middle Ages, or medieval period. This era was once referred to as the “Dark Ages,” though we now recognize it as a period rich in art and culture.

images The shift from the medieval period to the age of the Renaissance was prompted by the dramatic fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Turks, when many major scholars, artists, and scientists fled to the West.

images The Renaissance was characterized by an emphasis on this world and humanity’s place within it. This humanism would affect all aspects of human endeavor.

images Discussions of the Renaissance generally make a distinction between Italian versus Northern culture. The “North” generally refers to Northern European areas such as the Netherlands, France, and Germany, though it has come to more broadly describe any Renaissance activities occurring in parts of Europe outside of Italy.

images A major distinction between Italian and Northern art is seen in the earlier adoption of oil paints in the North, which allowed for an extraordinary degree of detail and rich coloration. In contrast, Italian painting, largely in fresco and tempera, was generally more focused on accurate visual and compositional structure.

images A key issue in the North during this period was the emergence of the Protestant Reformation, inspired by Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses, which directly challenged Church practices.

images The rapid changes occurring in Europe during the Renaissance era impacted peoples across the globe, as societies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas first became known to the West during this time.

images The West’s desire for the mineral and natural resources of these newly “discovered” lands often resulted in conflict and the exploitation and enslavement of local inhabitants by various Western powers.

images  Jan van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece, 1432

images While there is evidence that oil paints were known in the Classical era in ancient Greece, they only came into wide use in the fifteenth century. While Jan van Eyck was certainly an early master in the medium, scholars generally agree that oil paint was not his invention.

images Panel paintings may be displayed singularly or in groups. Two panels hinged together create a diptych painting. Three panels make up a triptych. Panel paintings like the Ghent Altarpiece that are made up many panels are called polyptychs.

images Jan van Eyck’s birthdate and place are unknown, though it is generally believed that he was born prior to 1395 and that he probably came from Maaseik in Belgium. He is believed to have been born into a wealthy family of artists.

images The Ghent Altarpiece is an exceptional example of Northern Renaissance painting. It is an extremely complex work, both in its physical form and in its iconography, which is centered on the broad theme of the redemption of man.

images  Leonardo da Vinci, Ornithopter Wings, from the Codex Atlanticus, fol. 309 verso, 1478–1519

images During the Renaissance, artists began to argue that their work demonstrated original invention over basic learned skill. Giorgio Vasari maintained that the intellectual and social position of artists should be equal to that of poets and humanists.

images The Renaissance was a “rebirth” of classical antiquity. Renaissance thinkers reclaimed the knowledge of the ancients, leading to many great innovations, such as the printing press, the nautical compass, and the microscope.

images Leonardo was born at Vinci in Italy, on April 15, 1452. He first studied in the studio of Verrocchio. Over the course of his life, he traveled throughout Italy and ultimately to France, working as an artist and engineer for a wide variety of wealthy patrons.

images The Ornithopter Wings sketch is taken from the Codex Atlanticus, a twelve-volume manuscript that includes over a thousand pages of drawings by Leonardo. The Codex was assembled from various loose pages and notebooks after Leonardo’s death.

images The Ornithopter Wings is one of many Leonardo drew related to the concept of flight. His careful study of birds led to the development of various artificial wing systems.

images  Raphael, The School of Athens, c. 1508–11

images Two key artistic innovations of the Renaissance were the development of linear and atmospheric perspective.

images Fresco painting was another major element of Italian Renaissance art. Fresco is a type of wall painting in which the artist paints directly onto a wet plaster wall, creating an extremely durable and longlasting image.

images Raphael was born on April 6 or March 28, 1483. Raphael’s artistic studies began in the workshop of Perugino. He ultimately had a very successful career in Rome, before he died unexpectedly at age thirty-seven.

images The School of Athens is one of four frescoes Pope Julius II commissioned Raphael to paint for the private papal apartments at the Vatican.

images The painting depicts a plaza filled with philosophers and scientists of the ancient world, many of whom are presented as portraits of Raphael’s contemporaries. The fresco sums up, visually and conceptually, the most important ideas of the Renaissance.

images  Filippo Brunelleschi, Dome of Florence Cathedral, 1420–36

images Filippo Brunelleschi’s successful doming of the Cathedral in Florence was one of the most significant architectural feats of the Renaissance. The structure was of such massive scale that the architect needed to develop new technologies and processes to complete the commission.

images Brunelleschi was born in 1377. He became a master goldsmith and clockmaker at age twenty-one and famously lost the competition to sculpt the doors of the Florence Baptistery in 1401.

images Brunelleschi is credited with inventing linear perspective.

images Brunelleschi’s plan for doming the Florence Cathedral employed no centering—an amazing proposal. He also developed a new hoisting mechanism (one of the most celebrated machines of the Renaissance) to lift materials up into the dome during construction.

images Brunelleschi’s dome project was very influential over time. Leonardo carefully studied the hoist machine, and many later dome lanterns, such as that at St. Peter’s in Rome, were inspired by Brunelleschi’s innovation.

images  Decorated pages intended for a Koran, c. 1500

images It is believed that paper was invented in China at least two thousand years ago. The methods of paper production were a carefully guarded secret in China up until the beginning of the seventh century.

images Paper was first introduced into the Islamic world in the eighth century, when Muslim Arab armies from the Near East conquered Central Asia.

images Paper was well established in Europe by the mid-eleventh century. It was in Europe that paper was first produced by machine. It was also in Europe that the printing press was invented, followed quickly by the development of Johannes Gutenberg’s typographic printing process in the 1450s.

images These two sheets are decorated in a manner typical for the opening pages of Korans produced in Turkey during the 1500s. Muslims believe the Koran, the most sacred text in the Muslim faith, presents the words of the revelation of God. The beauty of these pages is appropriate for this highly religious function.

SECTION IV

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Artistic Innovations

The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries–Overview

It is no exaggeration to say that the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw the birth of the modern world. Massive political, economic, scientific, and social upheavals occurred during this period, which affected humanity in ways that continue to impact us to the present day. Perhaps the most significant events were the advent of the Industrial Revolution in England and the eruptions of political rebellion in the thirteen colonies and France. Western society was transformed from a traditional agrarian culture to one focused on industry and progress, and new visions of democracy, personal liberty, capitalism, socialism, urbanism, and technological and scientific progress were developed and celebrated. Economic and political success was often dependent on the development of cheap labor and access to raw materials, which led to increased global trade and colonialism by many of the world’s most powerful nations.

In art, important innovations in materials spurred advances in architecture and painting, while the development of photography introduced an entirely new medium to the realm of art making. In addition, the quickening pace of society was reflected in the art movements that appeared during this time. In contrast to the centuries-long artistic periods of the ancient and Renaissance worlds, art movements in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries lasted mere decades. The art produced mirrored contemporary life in its style and subject matter, presenting radically new techniques and images for an increasingly modernized world.

The Enlightenment and its Legacy

The transformations of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries can in many ways be traced to the Enlightenment. Arising in Britain, France, Germany, and the thirteen colonies in the eighteenth century, the Enlightenment provided radical new ways of thinking. Rather than understanding the world from the perspectives of religion, myth, or tradition, Enlightenment thought was founded on a more analytical point of view. Enlightenment thinkers relied on scientific questioning and rationality, as well as the collection and analysis of empirical evidence, in order to more fully understand humanity and the universe.

Enlightenment thinking was perhaps best represented in the work of the French philosopher Voltaire (1694–1778). His writings on topics as varied as literature, history, and science summed up the Enlightenment spirit, as they challenged contemporary thought and called for greater freedoms in the realms of religion and human expression. This was also the era of Isaac Newton (1642–1727), the physicist and mathematician who saw great rationality in the physical world and called for the analysis of tangible data and concrete experience in an effort to better understand that world. The British philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) was also active during this period. Locke believed that all humans are born good and have a natural right to life, liberty, and property. His “doctrine of progress” was optimistic and saw humanity as positively evolving toward an improved life through increased knowledge. Enlightenment ideas were expressed in projects such as Denis Diderot’s Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (“Encyclopedia or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts”), published from 1751–72. The Encyclopédie was intended to sum up all of human knowledge as it was known at the time.

Voltaire at his desk. Engraving by Baquoy, c. 1795. Voltaire’s writings on literature, history, and science challenged contemporary thought and called for greater freedoms in the realms of religion and human expression.

The Enlightenment would ultimately affect all aspects of human existence. New, critical attitudes toward the world would trigger challenges to the social, political, economic, and religious systems that had been in place for generations. As tradition was upended during this period, doors would open to new modes of understanding and experiencing contemporary life. This new openness would provide many important opportunities for innovation.

Eighteenth-Century Revolutions and Political Transformations

Perhaps the most obvious transformations occurring during the eighteenth century were seen in the political realm. During this period, traditional systems in which power was held only by wealthy members of the aristocracy or by the Church were largely destroyed, along with the rigid social hierarchies those systems reinforced. John Locke’s ideas on government were particularly significant for the revolutions which were to emerge in America and France in the latter part of the eighteenth century. According to Locke, systems of government are contracts meant to support a nation’s citizens. If political leaders abuse the power given to them under such contracts, the people have the right to revolt. Revolts of this kind occurred in dramatic fashion both in Europe and the New World, leading to more democratic systems of government.

Lithographic portrait of British philosopher John Locke. Locke’s ideas on government were particularly significant for the revolutions which were to emerge in America and France in the latter part of the eighteenth century.

The new political arrangements that resulted from these bloody revolutions were, ideally, founded on ideas of equality and shared governance. Increased political participation by a wider segment of society supported the Enlightenment celebration of the individual and allowed for more inclusive leadership. While the idealistic visions of these revolutions were not necessarily completely achieved, the uprisings nonetheless did create more egalitarian cultures—cultures that have proven to be models for later political revolutionaries seeking equality and freedom for their own people.

Technology and Industrialism

Significant shifts in economic systems occurred hand in hand with the major political upheavals of the eighteenth century. These changes were largely driven by technological advances of the period, which greatly affected labor and the production of consumer goods. Three specific technological advancements were key to these shifts: new methods for producing textiles, the harnessing of steam power, and innovations in the production of iron.

Painting of James Watt, Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer by Carl Frederik von Breda. Watt’s development of the steam engine was integral to the Industrial Revolution.

Textile production was radically advanced with the development of several new devices. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 exponentially accelerated the processing of cotton, and other new machines were invented to spin and weave raw materials into cloth. Up until this point, all aspects of textile production had been completed by hand, often in the home. These new techniques, first implemented together in textile mills in England, allowed for the manufacture of fabric on a massive scale. Such production was largely possible through the development of the steam engine, which was perfected by the Scottish engineer James Watt between 1765 and 1782. Steam not only powered English manufacturing, but also was central to advances in transportation.²⁰ And finally, all of these new technologies were dependent on the development and use of iron. Mining activity focusing on the excavation of coal and ore for iron production increased dramatically during this period. The resulting materials literally fueled advances in industrial production.

We identify this moment in England during the second half of the eighteenth century as the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. As methods of production were greatly mechanized and expanded, many significant changes occurred in contemporary society. With industrialism came the development of a new working class, which redefined labor around factory production. These workers were attracted to new urban areas where manufacturing was centered, leading to the growth of the modern city. The items these workers produced were increasingly accessible, and consumerism became an indicator of success and prosperity. All of these changes reinforced and echoed the other broad changes we have thus far discussed as central to eighteenth- and nineteenth-century culture.

The Evolution of Art

Considering these massive shifts in the realms of philosophy, science, politics, and economics, it is not surprising that art was also radically transformed during this period. Art is a cultural product and as such it reflects the society in which it is made. During the eighteenth century, the West was rocked by political revolutions as well as the social and commercial effects of industrialism. The art produced during this period clearly illustrates those forces, as it shifted through a variety of styles and subject matters. These changes continued into the nineteenth century, with the advent of new artistic processes and materials that further evolved art production into new realms.

Early eighteenth-century art was centered on the Rococo movement, which began in France. This art was largely supported by the French aristocracy, which desired artworks that were luxurious and focused on themes of leisure. By the late eighteenth century, Romanticism had begun to emerge, presenting highly dramatic works intended to express the power of the artist’s imagination and to celebrate the unique subjectivity of the viewer’s response. Neoclassicism also emerged by the late eighteenth century, with an emphasis on moralizing narratives from Greek and Roman history and a clear, highly polished style. These movements reflect political events in Europe, with the nobility’s initial power and eventual fall from grace, followed by the rise of the individual under the Enlightenment, and finally the French desire for an art to instruct the people in the post-Revolutionary world.

The nineteenth century saw the emergence of Realism, which emphasized common subjects, presented in true-to-life forms, and finally Impressionism, which specifically examined late nineteenth-century Paris, as well as the surrounding suburbs and French coast, in a radically new visual mode. This ongoing evolution reflected continuing social changes and attitudes toward art. New subjects were of interest, as was the developing concept of the avant-garde—a desire for experimentation and innovation in artistic practice. The invention of photography furthered this conversation about art, as did the design of collapsible metal tubes for paint, which allowed artists to work easily out of doors. All of these influences—social, political, and technological—can be seen in the art of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

SELECTED WORK

IRON BRIDGE, Abraham Darby III and Thomas F. Pritchard, Coalbrookdale, England, 1779

The Industrial Revolution in England

As was discussed in the overview of this section, the Industrial Revolution began in England around the mid-eighteenth century. Technological inventions that harnessed the power of electricity, combustion, and steam allowed human and animal labor to be replaced by mechanical devices. These machines greatly increased productivity, which allowed for the rapid development of a variety of industries in England. This new manufacturing economy largely replaced agricultural production, which had been central in the country up until that point.

With industrialism came many other major shifts in English society. Wealth was now distributed across a greater segment of the population, and many more people were able to purchase consumer goods. These increased markets were further stimulated by the expansion of transportation systems such as canals and railroads, which moved materials and goods across the country. Trade continued to develop, which eventually led to the establishment of international markets for British goods. As the British expanded their reach throughout the world, they became a global force—it was during this period that the nation became the largest empire in history and reached the height of its global power.

Engineering and Material Innovations

Perhaps the most important material exploited during the early period of the Industrial Revolution was iron. Up until the early eighteenth century, iron in England was produced through a process of smelting, with heat and charcoal used to extract the material from its ore. Unfortunately, England had a shortage of charcoal, and so most iron had to be imported. In 1709 Abraham Darby developed a process for smelting iron using coke (processed coal), instead of charcoal, which allowed for a boom in iron production, as iron ore and coal were both abundant in England. Darby’s descendants would build on his contributions to the iron industry—his son, Abraham Darby II (1711–73), further refined the smelting process to produce higher quality iron material, and his grandson, Abraham Darby III (1750–89), would construct the first iron bridge.

Iron became the backbone of industrial development in England. New architectural forms were needed to serve the quickly developing manufacturing processes of the Industrial Revolution—factories, mills, warehouses, and dockyard structures were required, and these buildings had to be larger, stronger, and more fire-resistant than earlier structures. They also had to be relatively inexpensive to construct in order to be economically practical. Iron suited these purposes perfectly, as its production cost had been greatly reduced, and its great tensile strength allowed for the construction of the types of vast enclosed spaces necessary for manufacturing and industry. While these new structures would generally rely on traditional architectural forms, such as arches and post and lintel systems, iron allowed for building on an unprecedented scale.

Original site of Abraham Darby I’s blast furnace. Abraham Darby developed a process for smelting iron using coke (processed coal) instead of charcoal, which allowed for a boom in iron production in England.

Photograph: Brown, 2009.

Half-length portrait painting of Thomas Farnolls Pritchard (1723–77), architect of the Iron Bridge.

Darby and Pritchard: Biographies and Careers

Abraham Darby III was born at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, England, on April 24, 1750, into a Quaker family that owned and operated an important iron-making business. Darby’s father died when he was only thirteen years old, leaving his shares in the business to his son. In 1768, Darby took over the management of the Coalbrookdale ironworks and ultimately made it one of the most advanced iron production facilities in England. His endless quest for new uses of iron led him into a partnership with Thomas Pritchard, which ultimately resulted in the construction of the Iron Bridge. Darby married Rebecca Smith in 1776. They had seven children, four of whom survived to adulthood. His sons Francis (1783–1850) and Richard (1788–1860) were both involved with the Coalbrookdale Company after Darby’s death at age thirty-nine in 1789.

Thomas Farnolls Pritchard (1723–77) was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on May 11, 1723. His father John was a carpenter who specialized in joinery, or the cutting and fitting of joints in wood construction. Pritchard trained to be a joiner as well, but eventually became an architect and interior designer. He was also known for building funerary monuments in various styles. Pritchard married Elinor Russel in 1751, and the couple had four children, three of whom died in infancy. The family moved to Eyton on Severn in 1769. While there, Pritchard designed various bridges, including the Coalbrookdale project. Pritchard died a month after construction of the bridge began, and so he did not live to see his most famous structure completed. He is buried at St Julian’s in Shrewsbury, a church he had helped rebuild earlier in his career.

Iron Bridge: Analysis

Darby and Pritchard’s Iron Bridge is an icon of the Industrial Revolution. The bridge was the first arch bridge in the world to be made of cast iron, and it is one of the few remaining early examples of this form to survive into the present day. The bridge spans the Severn River near Coalbrookdale. It springs from two stone piers on the banks of the river and is shaped in the form of a wide arch, much like the configuration we saw with the Pont du Gard. The arch form is made of cast iron and reaches approximately one hundred feet from pier to pier. The very visible structure of the iron skeleton becomes expressive here, as in other later iron projects such as the Crystal Palace in England (1851) and the Eiffel Tower in France (1889). The strength of the iron allows for the use of a relatively minimal amount of material, giving the bridge an open, light form.

The bridge was Thomas Pritchard’s original idea. He proposed the structure to John Wilkinson, a local ironmaster, in 1773. The bridge was intended to solve a major transportation problem in the area—up until the completion of the Iron Bridge, the only way to cross the Severn River was by ferry. As Coalbookdale evolved into a major industrial center, a more reliable crossing was necessary. Pritchard’s plans were supported by Wilkinson, who enlisted Darby to cast and build the structure.

As no such form had been built of iron at the time the bridge was erected, there was no precedent for actually erecting it. In the end, the bridge was assembled using basic carpentry methods—each piece was cast separately and then attached using fastenings adapted from woodworking techniques. The main arch is made up of half-ribs, approximately seventy feet long and weighing five and one-quarter tons, which were bolted together at the center of the bridge’s span. Twelve different cast forms were used, with over eight hundred separate pieces making up the final structure. The bridge was raised in 1779 and opened on New Year’s Day in 1781.

The Crystal Palace, London, England, like the Iron Bridge, had a visible iron skeleton.

That the bridge is sited at Coalbrookdale is itself significant. It was here at the Darby ironworks that Abraham Darby I first developed the coke iron production technique that transformed iron production in England. The iron for the new bridge was cast at the same Darby foundry. While shares were issued to raise the funds necessary for the construction costs, Darby agreed to cover any cost overruns. In the end, 379 tons of iron were used (more than anticipated), and the project ended up being much more expensive than originally planned. Darby did indeed cover the additional costs, which put him in debt for the rest of his life.

The Iron Bridge continues to be a major tourist destination, as it was in its own day. In 1934 it was closed to vehicular traffic, and today the bridge, the adjacent settlement of Ironbridge, and the Ironbridge Gorge are designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The engineering and materials used to construct the bridge made it a modern marvel in the rapidly changing world of the late eighteenth century, and it continues to serve as an important monument to the ideas of progress embodied by the Industrial Revolution. [For more information on the Iron Bridge, including artists’ impressions of the structure and details about its conservation and restoration, see http://www.ironbridge.org.uk/collections/the-iron-bridge/.]

SELECTED WORK

EMPEROR’S TWELVE-SYMBOL ROBE, Eighteenth-Century China

Chinese Development of Silk

Silk is made from caterpillars called silkworms.²¹ Under cultivation, silkworms are raised from eggs and grown in trays. They are fed mulberry leaves as they develop to their pupa phase, when they form cocoons around their metamorphosing bodies. The cocoon form is made from a fine filament extruded by the caterpillar’s body, which solidifies when it is exposed to air. Each silkworm produces a filament approximately one hundred to two hundred feet in length. Before the newly developed moth emerges from the cocoon, it is killed with steam or high heat. The cocoon is then softened in hot water, and the filament is carefully unwound onto a reel. The filament strands are twisted together to form yarn, which can then be woven on a loom to make textile cloth. The yarn can also be easily dyed to create a variety of colored silk threads.

Women Preparing Silk, painting by Emperor Huizong of Song, early twelfth century.

There are various stories of how silk was first cultivated. Though it is difficult to determine with certainty how the process was initially developed, one of the most repeated narratives centers on Lady Hsi-Ling (2698–2598 BCE), the chief wife of the Yellow Emperor Huang-Ti (reigned c. 2697–2597 BCE). She is often credited with discovering how to collect silk. A story describes how she observed a silkworm cocoon behave when it fell off a tree into her cup of tea.²² Regardless of how the process was discovered, by the second millennium BCE, sericulture, or silk farming, was well established in China.

Silk would become a central aspect of Chinese culture and economics. Silk production was highly controlled by the ruling class, with the annual silkworm sacrifice and reeling of cocoons enacted as an imperial ceremony presided over by the empress. A sophisticated industry grew up around silk cultivation, with mulberry plantations established to feed the silkworm caterpillars, and great experimentation to refine and perfect the cultivation and collection processes. [To view a short video illustrating silk cultivation and silk craftsmanship in China, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYiubgSuRUE.]

The Silk Road, a network of caravan trails across Central Asia linking China to the Mediterranean world, was the main conduit for distributing Chinese silk outside of the country. The Silk Road also encouraged contact between the East and West. The Silk Road opened in the second century BCE, during the reign of Han Emperor Wu. This contact brought gifts of silk as far west as Persia and Mesopotamia. In addition to silk wares, other goods such as gold, ivory, glass, lacquer, incense, and spices were traded along the Silk Road. The Silk Road was also important in bringing Buddhism to China from India during the first century CE.

The Use of Silk in Art

Silk has been used in various ways throughout art history. No doubt its most significant function has been as a textile. Silk can be woven into a variety of fabrics, such as brocades, damasks, and velvets, as well as carpets and tapestries. Woven silk items can be patterned on the loom, using silk threads of various colors to create richly decorated textiles. Silk may also be used in embroidery, with silk threads stitched onto textiles made of any manner of materials. Silk textiles have been used to produce a wide variety of clothing items and have also been used as decorative details for such costuming. Decorative borders or fabric bands have been stitched onto clothing, and narrow silk tapestry strips have been used to bind religious books and scrolls.

In addition to its use as a woven or embroidered textile, silk has been used as a support for other artistic processes. There are many wonderful examples of Chinese calligraphy and landscape painting which have been rendered on silk, as well as decorative flower, plant, animal, and geometric designs printed with gold and other pigments on silk canvases. Silk continues to be worked today in fine art and clothing produced throughout the world.

A wall scroll painted by Ma Lin on or before 1246, using ink and color on silk. Silk has often been used as a support for other artistic processes.

Imperial China: Overview

When we refer to Imperial China, we focus on two main periods: the early and late imperial eras. The early imperial age spans the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) through the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), while the late imperial era encompasses the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) through the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12 CE).²³ The imperial era was one of great stability, with a political system that distributed power according to merit, rather than tradition or wealth. Imperial China came into contact with foreign nations through territorial expansion and increased immigration, which ensured cultural vibrancy and development. Imperial China was also characterized by religious pluralism, with Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism serving as the dominant religions of the era.

Chinese society of the imperial period was greatly focused on art. Much of the population was literate and valued poetry and calligraphy as creative forms. Painting was highly esteemed, and technological innovations, such as the development of paper and porcelain, helped advance art of the age. In particular, ceramics were produced on a vast scale throughout the country, with distinct green and blue glazed works commanding the greatest interest. Silk clothing and textiles were also highly valued during this period and were central to establishing the visual forms of the imperial court.

Emperor’s Twelve-Symbol Robe: Analysis

This robe was produced during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12), the last imperial dynasty of China. It is identified as a twelve-symbol robe, which would have been worn exclusively by the emperor and his immediate family. Few twelve-symbol robes, which were formalized as a type under the Qing Dynasty, survive outside of China. This example, held by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, incorporates gold and silver metallic thread embroidered on a rich blue twill-weave silk. Additional embroidery details are picked out in black, white, and pale blue silk.

The images decorating the robe are the twelve imperial symbols: sun, moon, constellation, mountain, dragons, bird, cups, water weed, millet, fire, ax, and the symmetrical “fu” symbol, which is a geometric border somewhat like the Greek meander form. In addition to the basic imperial elements, the robe is more specifically described as a Dragon Robe, and so it includes additional details: nine large dragons, clouds, waves, and mountains symmetrically arranged to represent an orderly universe. This particular example is further embellished with auspicious “wan” and “shou” medallions, Buddhist and Daoist symbols, as well as bats.²⁴

The dragon, as a symbol of authority, was associated with the emperor’s rule, and the use of such symbolism on his costuming illustrates his authority. The details of the robe are characteristic of the general type, including the specific symbols listed above, which are positioned in particular ways on the garment. For example, the robe’s nine dragons are set in specific areas on the robe: four are placed around the neck, two pairs in profile are symmetrically located around the central seams at the front and back of the robe, and another is hidden inside the robe, on the inner front behind the shaped flap.²⁵

This robe would have been worn with other imperial regalia, such as badges (embroidered patches worn on the front and back of such robes), a hat, a detachable collar to cover the shoulders, necklaces, and satin boots.²⁶ We know about such details of court costume from paintings and early photographs which show the emperor in his official ceremonial dress.

Robes of this type were made of textiles produced by the imperial silk workshop. Such a robe was extremely expensive to produce, not only because of the rarity of the materials, but also because of the intense amount of highly skilled labor required. According to historian Verity Wilson, “it has been calculated from Qing archival sources that it would have taken one person sixteen days to accomplish the pattern drawing, one year and one month to complete the gold work and one year and four months for the silk embroidery.”²⁷ This time frame is even more amazing when we recognize that it does not take into account time for the production of the silk used throughout, or the weaving of the robe’s ground fabric. An object of such splendor and symbolic meaning would be a forceful reminder of the emperor’s authority and the power of the court.

SELECTED WORK

OPHELIA, STUDY NO. 2, Julia Margaret Cameron, 1867

The Development of Photography

All photographic processes are founded on basic effects of light and optics. In its most simple form, a camera is a completely sealed box with a single hole (the lens). Light-sensitive material is inserted into this box. When the lens is opened, light from outside of the camera enters through the lens and is directed onto the light-sensitive material inside, which captures an image of the space in front of the camera’s view.

Camera technology evolved from the use of the camera obscura, an optical device known since ancient times. Artists had previously fixed the images captured in the interior of the camera obscura manually, generally by tracing the forms onto paper or canvas. [For an example of a contemporary artist using the camera obscura, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PdUjGGgcQo4.] The desire to capture permanently these direct images of the world provoked many experiments with camera mechanisms and light-sensitive materials, but it was Joseph Nicéphore Niépce who produced the oldest surviving photograph in 1826 or 1827. Niépce, a French inventor, captured a view out of the window of his home on a polished pewter plate that he had made light-sensitive by coating it with a thin layer of bitumen.

French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, who produced the oldest surviving photograph in 1826 or 1827.

Portrait of French physicist Louis Daguerre (1787–1851), who developed a photographic process—which he named daguerreotype—that allowed for greatly shortened exposure times.

Niépce eventually partnered with Louis Daguerre, a French artist and physicist, to refine his process. The two men experimented with a variety of materials and techniques in their attempt to reduce the necessary exposure time for capturing an image, which in the early development of photography could take many hours to complete. After Niépce’s death in 1833, Daguerre continued their experiments, finally making a breakthrough discovery in which he was able to enhance a faint image captured through a short exposure with the application of mercury fumes to his metal plate. This allowed for a greatly shortened exposure time. Daguerre publicly announced his process, which he named “daguerreotype,” on January 7, 1839, at the French Academy of Sciences.

Over time, Daguerre’s techniques would be greatly improved upon. The desire for increasingly quick exposures stimulated much experimentation. The eventual use of paper for capturing imagery was another important development, as was the refinement of the chemical processes used, which made the camera and photography increasingly accessible to the general public. Later developments, ranging from the ability to generate a negative image from which multiple copies could be made, to the use of color, to our world of digital techniques, have all advanced on the earliest experiments with the photographic concept.

Effects of Photography on Art

The development of photography had significant and lasting impacts on art. At the time that photography was being discovered and refined, Realism was emerging as an artistic movement. Artists such as Gustave Corbet and Jean-François Millet were concerned with creating images of the world around them, albeit in painted form. Their impetus to look at and depict the real world was shared by the budding photographers of the age.

However, for many, photography was significantly different as a generator of images in comparison to what viewers at the time considered to be fine art. Photography seemed much more a scientific process than an artistic one, with its great emphasis on chemistry and careful timing. Photography also seemed to be a technique anyone could master, unlike painting and sculpting, which took years of technical training to master.

An early court case in 1862 highlights the way in which “true” artists first viewed photography. The central argument of the lawsuit centered on photographs and rights of reproduction—specifically, whether photographs should be considered art and receive the same legal protections as other established forms. A group of French painters, including Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Jean-Hippolyte Flandrin, and Puvis de Chavannes, stated in a petition to the court that, “photography consists of a series of completely manual operations which no doubt require some skill in the manipulations involved, but never resulting in works which would in any circumstance ever be compared with those works which are the fruits of intelligence and the study of art—on these grounds, the undersigned artists protest against any comparison which might be made between photography and art.”²⁸ Clearly, these artists saw photography as the product of mere manual dexterity. They did not believe that it was a true artistic medium, deserving of the same respect as the paintings they created.

While many artists decried the popularity and acceptance of photography, many others saw the benefits of using photographs in the production of their art. Many Impressionist artists and others used photographs as tools to aid their memories, allowing them to capture fleeting scenes that could be worked up into final paintings at a later date. And others, including photographers such as Julia Margaret Cameron (1815–79), would create photographs that were intended to be recognized as independent art objects in and of themselves.

Julia Margaret Cameron: Biography and Artistic Career

Julia Margaret Pattle was born on June 11, 1815, in Calcutta, India. Her father, James Pattle, was a British official in the Indian Civil Services. Her French mother, Adéline, sent Julia and several of her siblings to be raised by their grandmother in Paris and Versailles. Julia lived in France for fifteen years, from 1818–1833, and then returned to India, where she met and married Charles Hay Cameron, a member of the Law Commission who was stationed in Calcutta, in 1838. Ten years later, Charles retired, and the family moved to London and then eventually relocated to the Isle of Wight. In 1875, the Camerons again moved, to Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka), where Julia died on January 26, 1879.

Cameron came late to photography, taking her first picture in 1864 at the age of forty-eight. She was given a camera as a present by her newly married daughter Julia and her son-in-law Charles Norman. Included with the camera was a note: “It may amuse you Mother to try to Photograph during your solitude at FreshWater.”²⁹ At the time, the Camerons had recently moved to Freshwater on the Isle of Wight, and Cameron’s husband and sons had left to visit the family’s coffee plantations in Ceylon. Cameron was alone and obviously somewhat at loose ends. Her daughter sent her the camera as a simple distraction.

However, within a short time, Cameron was producing and exhibiting photographs. She became a member of the Photographic Societies of London and Scotland in 1865 and became known for her portraits of some of the most famous figures of her age: men such as Charles Darwin, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Alfred Tennyson, who was a personal friend. In addition to her portrait photography, Cameron created many images that were meant to echo historical paintings or illustrate literary subjects. Her sitters for such works included various family members, friends, and servants in her household. Cameron’s work was greatly influenced by David Wilkie Wynfield (1837–87), in particular by the soft focus style of his photographic imagery.

In contrast to many early photographers who saw their work as a scientific pursuit, Cameron strove for artful effects in her work. In a letter to the British scientist and fellow photographer Sir John Hershell, she admitted that her ultimate aim was to “enoble Photography and to secure for it the character and uses of High Art by combining the real & Ideal & sacrificing nothing of Truth by all possible devotion to Poetry & beauty.”³⁰ Over quite a short career, and through works such as Ophelia, Study No. 2, Cameron did in fact help to elevate the artistic level of photography.

Ophelia, Study No. 2: Analysis

Ophelia, Study No. 2 is an albumen print, measuring 1’1” x 10 ⅔”. The albumen technique was invented in 1850 by Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard and was the first commercial process available for the production of photographs on paper using negatives. The sitter for this work was likely Mary Pinnock, a local woman of Freshwater.³¹

The photograph is a typical example of Cameron’s female portraiture. The sitter is seen fairly close up in a bust-length view that fills the composition. The young woman wears a dark drape that is pinned at her neck with what appears to be a white flower. Her long curly hair flows down her shoulders, and on her head she wears a woven hat decorated with a light colored flower. Her head is turned slightly toward the right, and her gaze looks down. Her mouth is slightly opened as she stares into space. The background is not at all delineated and may suggest foliage behind the figure.

The title identifies the figure as Ophelia, a tragic figure in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. In Shakespeare’s drama, Ophelia loves the hero Hamlet. Hamlet becomes consumed with his desire to avenge his father’s death and ultimately rejects Ophelia. In her misery, Ophelia falls into a brook and—unwilling or incapable of saving herself—drowns. This kind of romantic subject was characteristic of Cameron’s photographs exploring literary themes. Many works are based on literature, Arthurian legends, and mythological subjects, particularly narratives with brooding and melancholy themes. This choice of subject matter was one way in which Cameron made her photographs more “artistic” and expressive.

Julia Margaret Cameron in 1870, photographed by Henry Herschel Hay Cameron.

The style of this image is also typical of Cameron’s work. The soft focus treatment of the scene creates a hazy, romantic quality. In her desire to make aesthetically pleasing, “artistic” photographs, Cameron avoided the hard focus possible with the photographic medium. The style is representative of what would ultimately be labeled the Pictorialist trend in British photography. This overtly artistic quality is also seen in contemporary paintings by the British Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which was active after the mid-nineteenth century. That group’s focus on beautiful images of ethereal women is clearly echoed in Cameron’s Ophelia. In fact, the Pre-Raphaelite artist John Everett Millais painted his own Ophelia in 1851–52. In a variety of ways, Cameron attempts to ally her photography with other artistic trends of her age, thus elevating this still relatively new medium into the realm of true art.

SELECTED WORK

LA GARE SAINT-LAZARE, Claude Monet, 1877

Impressionism

Impressionism is an artistic movement that arose in France at the end of the nineteenth century. In the spirit of the Realist movement that preceded them, the Impressionist artists were similarly concerned with painting the modern world around them. In the case of Impressionism, however, that world was specifically Paris of the 1870s and 1880s as well as the surrounding suburbs and French coast. The Impressionists were interested in depicting the new, wide boulevards of the city as well as the entertainments and leisure pursuits it had to offer. Their work was decidedly modern in its subject matter and radically new in its style.

The label “Impressionism” was not one the group selected for itself. They called themselves the Société Anonyme des Artistes, Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, etc. (“Anonymous Society of Artists, Painters, Sculptors, Engravers, etc.”). “Impressionist” was a label applied to them by a hostile critic reviewing their first exhibition. In the newspaper Le Charivari, Louis Leroy discussed Claude Monet’s Impression, Sunrise (1872) and declared sarcastically, “Impression I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it—and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! A preliminary drawing for a wallpaper pattern is more finished than this seascape.”³² Leroy’s derogatory description of the harbor view at Le Havre struck a chord with other viewers at the time, and the artists of this group have been known as the Impressionists ever since.

The Impressionists exhibited their work in eight shows in Paris between 1874 and 1886. The participating artists varied according to each exhibit, but included figures such as Monet, Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, Alfred Sisley, Camille Pissarro, Mary Cassatt, and Berthe Morisot. Their styles were actually quite disparate, though we have come to expect Impressionism to display loose brushstrokes and a lack of “finish” in its final form. For those Impressionists who painted in this manner, including Morisot, Renoir, and Monet, such a visual form reinforced the dynamic subject matter of their paintings. These Impressionists strove to illustrate the modern moment in what they saw as an optically true style. These artists painted scenes as if seen in a glancing view because they understood that, in reality, very little in our visual field at any given moment is in sharp focus. Most of what we see is initially perceived as simple patches of light and color, which our mind processes and orders to help us understand the scene before us. Monet and the other Impressionists who painted in a similar manner were concerned with painting what our eye sees, not what our mind sees. The result appeared chaotic to many viewers at the time, who were accustomed to art that presented a high degree of detail and sharply rendered form.

Claude Monet’s Impression, Sunrise (1872).

The Development of Paint in Collapsible Metal Tubes

The Impressionists’ desire to render contemporary life in a dynamic, fleeting style was aided by a major advance in paint technology that occurred at the time—the development of collapsible metal tubes to hold premixed paints. Prior to the nineteenth century, artists generally mixed their own paints. Eventually it was possible to purchase ready-made paint from colormen, who sold the material packaged in the bladder of a pig. These bladders were somewhat difficult to use and not easily portable, as an artist had to prick a hole in the bladder in order to squeeze out a measure of paint. This hole would be sealed between uses, but it was actually quite difficult to avoid having the paint dry out. The bladders were also fairly delicate and liable to burst.

Pigs’ bladders were replaced by a glass syringe system invented by James Hams, an English artist, in 1822. A plunger squeezed the paint out of the syringe, which was a much neater process, but this packaging was still fragile and susceptible to breakage. The greatest advancement came in 1841 when the American portrait painter John Rand developed the collapsible metal tube sealed with a screw-on lid. Now, not only could paints be more easily stored in sturdy containers, they could also be easily transported out of the studio. This portability was particularly important to the Impressionists, who were interested in painting en plein air, or “in the open air”—out of doors in nature. Artists like Monet, who wanted to capture fleeting effects of light on the landscape, were liberated by this new paint technology.

The evolution of the paint tube. Artists like Monet, who wanted to capture fleeting effects of light on the landscape, were liberated by this new paint technology.

Photo courtesy of Winsor & Newton.

Claude Monet: Biography and Artistic Career

Claude Monet was born in Paris in 1840. When the artist was a child, his middle-class family relocated to Le Havre, where his father worked as a wholesale grocer supplying ships at the city’s port. His family was unable to support Monet’s art education, which he began in Le Havre, painting with Eugene Boudin (1824–98), a local landscape painter. Monet eventually left for Paris in order to further his studies. His father agreed to allow him to continue painting, on the condition that he work with an established, academic artist. Monet joined Charles Gleyre’s studio, where he met the future Impressionists Renoir and Sisley. Monet’s formal art education was brief. He enjoyed minimal success at the Parisian Salon, having only a handful of paintings accepted for exhibition. Early in his career he was in almost constant financial crisis, always asking for advances or loans, and often skipping out on bills for food and lodging.

By 1870 Monet was married to the artist’s model Camille Doncieux, with whom he had two children, Jean and Michel. Camille died of tuberculosis in 1879. After Camille’s death Monet took up residence with the family of Ernest Hoschedé, a wealthy department store owner and patron of the arts. Monet and his sons lived with the Hoschedé family at their home in Vétheuil. When Hoschedé went bankrupt and left his family, Monet and Alice Hoschedé continued to live together, in Paris and later in Giverny. It was in Giverny that they settled into the home that Monet would inhabit for the rest of his life. Alice and Monet were married in 1892, after Ernest Hoschedé’s death.

Monet’s career finally began to take off in the late 1880s once his dealer Paul Durand-Ruel began to be successful in selling his works. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s and until his death in 1926, Monet worked on paintings in series in which a subject was depicted from various points of view and in changeable light and weather conditions. His first such group of works presented haystacks, while later paintings focused on subjects such as poplar trees, the façade of Rouen Cathedral, and the famous water lilies, painted in the garden Monet constructed on his property at Giverny. The Gare Saint-Lazare painting on which we will focus can be seen as an early manifestation of the series works.

Monet’s second wife Alice died in 1911. It was during this time that the artist began to develop the first signs of cataracts. He underwent two operations to relieve this condition in 1923, and though the surgeries were successful, his eyesight was permanently altered. Monet eventually succumbed to lung cancer on December 5, 1926, at the age of eighty-six. His famous home and garden were willed to the French Academy of Fine Arts in 1966, and they have become an important tourist and pilgrimage site for art lovers from around the world.

La Gare Saint-Lazare: Analysis

The subject of this painting is one of the train stations renovated in Paris under the Haussmannization program. Baron Haussmann was a French city planner hired by Napoleon III to plan and undertake major modernizations of the city in the 1860s. In addition to updating the transportation system through the construction of new rail lines, bridges, and boulevards, Haussmann also laid out new parks, updated the Parisian sewer system, and built a variety of public buildings throughout Paris. At this specific location, Haussmann had overseen construction of the adjacent Pont de l’Europe bridge in 1867–68. [For a more in-depth discussion of Haussmannization, see http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/architecture/Haussmanns-Architectural-Paris.html.]

The painting is one of twelve different views Monet painted of the station between January and March of 1877. Seven of these works were exhibited in the Third Impressionist Exhibition later that year. One of these paintings was hung at the entrance to the galleries, and reviews and mentions of it were very positive.³³ The French writer and critic Emile Zola congratulated Monet on his, “terrific view of train stations. You can hear the trains rumbling in, see the smoke billow up under the huge roofs.” Zola continued, “That is where painting is today…. Our artists have to find the poetry in train stations, the way their fathers found the poetry in forests and rivers.”³⁴ To Zola, Monet had perfectly captured modern Paris with his view of this major transportation hub.

Monet’s many paintings of the station present various perspectives on the space. Some images view the station from outside, looking toward the interior platforms, while others, such as the example illustrated in the Art Reproductions Booklet, put the artist’s point of view squarely within the station—on the tracks and directly under the glassed skylight of the train shed. It seems as if Monet felt that no one single point of view could sum up the complexity of the space. In order to achieve these unusual views, Monet received special permission to paint and sketch throughout the station.

Portrait photograph of Claude Monet by Nadar.

Baron Haussmann was a French city planner hired by Napoleon III to plan and undertake major modernizations of Paris in the 1860s.

As with many of his later series paintings, the Saint-Lazare works were generally completed in the artist’s studio. The train station itself was an exciting, yet difficult place to work, and Monet created preliminary images there, which could be further evolved in the peace of his studio. While the Saint-Lazare works appear to provide a relatively comprehensive view of the train station, Monet’s true subject here, and in his later series works, was the empty space between himself and an object—a space Monet called the “envelope” of interactive colored light. Rather than carefully delineating the details of a scene, Monet chose to depict more fleeting visual effects. As he would later instruct a budding artist, “When you go out to paint, try to forget what objects you have before you, a tree, a house, a field or whatever, next, think here is a little square of blue, here an oblong of pink, here a streak of yellow, and paint it just as it looks to you, the exact color and shape, until it gives you your own naive impressions of the scene before you.”³⁵ Such “naïve impressions” result in a poetic quality that is indeed present in this view. Industry becomes muted and hazy here, as steam and smoke fill the composition, softening forms and colors throughout.

Though perhaps somewhat tamed by Monet’s brush, the Gare Saint-Lazare was an industrial marvel. Not only were its powerful steam engines mighty signs of modernism, the shed was itself an architectural wonder. Constructed of an iron skeleton with an immense glass skylight, this shed was an example of the type of massive, undivided enclosed spaces that could be built using the new materials and building techniques available with the Industrial Revolution. The regularized, repeated arch and truss forms made of cast iron that we see here are the grand result of the techniques first employed with the Iron Bridge decades before. Like that earlier monument, the station still stands today. The station and Monet’s innovative renderings of it stand as hallmarks of the advances of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Section IV Summary

images The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw massive shifts in Western society, many of which were inspired by the advent of the Industrial Revolution in England and the eruptions of political rebellion in the thirteen colonies and France.

images Western society was transformed from a traditional agrarian culture to one focused on industry and progress, and new visions of democracy, personal liberty, capitalism, socialism, urbanism and technological and scientific progress were developed and celebrated.

images Economic and political success was often dependent on the development of cheap labor and access to raw materials, which led to increased global trade and colonialism by many of the world’s most powerful nations.

images The transformations of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries can in many ways be traced to the Enlightenment, which shifted human understanding of the world from the perspectives of religion, myth, or tradition toward a more analytical point of view that relied on scientific questioning and rationality.

images Perhaps the most obvious transformations occurring during the eighteenth century were seen in the political realm. During this period, traditional systems in which power was held only by wealthy members of the aristocracy or by the Church were largely destroyed, and revolts in Europe and the New World brought about more democratic systems of government.

images Major shifts in economic systems also occurred at this time, driven largely by technological advances of the period—namely new methods for producing textiles, the harnessing of steam power, and innovations in the production of iron.

images Mechanized methods of production led to the development of a new working class, which redefined labor around factory production and emphasized consumerism as an indicator of success and prosperity.

images This industrialism also led to the growth of the modern city and new urban areas where manufacturing production was largely centered.

images   Art was similarly transformed during this time. From the Rococo style of the early eighteenth century, which focused on the aristocratic class, art shifted to Romanticism and Neoclassicism, which celebrated emotion and moralizing narratives intended to speak to the broad public.

images The later development of Realism and then Impressionism emphasized common, everyday subjects, while the concept of the avant-garde emerged to challenge traditional systems of art education and display.

images Finally, new technologies such as the use of iron in architecture, the development of photography, and the availability of paint in collapsible metal tubes greatly transformed art at this time.

images  Abraham Darby III and Thomas F. Pritchard, Iron Bridge, Coalbrookdale, England, 1779

images The Industrial Revolution was first seen in England around the mid-eighteenth century. Major technological inventions allowed human and animal labor to be replaced by mechanical devices, which greatly increased productivity.

images Iron was perhaps the most important material of the early Industrial Revolution. It was the backbone of industrial development, particularly in the realm of architecture, as it was relatively inexpensive to produce and had tremendous tensile strength.

images Abraham Darby III was born into a Quaker family that owned and operated an iron-making business in England. Darby ultimately took over the management of the family’s ironworks and made it one of the most advanced iron production facilities in England.

images As a young man, Thomas Farnolls Pritchard trained to be a joiner, though he eventually became an architect and interior designer. He was known for building funerary monuments as well as a number of bridges, including the Coalbrookdale project.

images The Iron Bridge is an icon of the Industrial Revolution. It was the first arch bridge in the world to be made of cast iron and is one of the few remaining early examples still extant.

images  Emperor’s Twelve-Symbol robe, Eighteenth-Century China

images Silk is harvested from the cocoons of silkworms. It is not known with certainty when and where silk was first cultivated, though by the second millennium BCE, sericulture was well established in China.

images Silk has been used in various ways in art. It has been transformed into textiles such as brocade and velvet, woven into carpets and tapestries, embroidered onto other fabrics, and even painted or printed upon.

images Imperial China (221 BCE–1911/12 CE) was a period of great stability and prosperity. There was much emphasis on art during this time as well as on religious pluralism and territorial expansion—all of which contributed to a rich and vibrant culture.

images This Twelve-Symbol Robe was produced during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12), the last imperial dynasty of China. Such a robe would have been worn exclusively by the emperor and his immediate family, as indicated by the richness of the object as well as the specific symbols that decorate it.

images  Julia Margaret Cameron, Ophelia, Study No. 2, 1867

images Photography evolved from the use of the camera obscura. The desire to permanently fix the images captured by this apparatus led to much experimentation. The first widely publicized true photographic process was the daguerreotype. It was described and announced by Louis Daguerre at the French Academy of Sciences on January 7, 1839.

images Photography significantly impacted art. Though it put many portrait painters out of business, other artists found photographs to be very useful “sketches” from which they could build their final works.

images Julia Margaret Cameron came to photography late in life—she made her first photographs at age forty-eight. She created images of many famous people of her time, including Charles Darwin and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

images In Ophelia we see Cameron’s typical style—she often used soft-focus to create a more “painterly” quality with her images.

images The photograph presents a young woman as Ophelia, a tragic figure in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet.

images  Claude Monet, La Gare Saint-lazare, 1877

images Impressionism arose in Paris during the 1870s and 1880s. Impressionist artists were interested in painting the world around them. Their art was modern in both subject matter and style.

images In 1841 the American portrait painter John Rand developed a new storage system for oil paints—the collapsible metal tube sealed with a screw-on lid. These tubes replaced traditional pig bladders and were much more durable, transportable, and tidy.

images Monet was one of the foremost Impressionist artists. He was involved with the group from its inception, though he did not achieve financial success until the late 1880s. He is known for his atmospheric works, often painted in series, such as his views of Rouen Cathedral and his many images of water lilies.

images La Gare Saint-Lazare is one of twelve views Monet painted of this major Parisian site. The artist received special permission to paint throughout La Gare Saint-Lazare, and his many images show a variety of light and steam effects within the large train shed.

SECTION V

Artistic Innovations of the Twentieth Century

The Twentieth Century–Overview

Even more than the centuries we have examined thus far, the twentieth century was a time of unprecedented change. New political arrangements transformed the map of the world, and war and conflict became global in scale. Decolonization began to bring independence to areas of Africa and Asia that had been controlled by European powers in the nineteenth century, while new areas came under colonial control. As Europe’s power waned, the United States, Russia, and Japan came to greater political prominence.

Incredible developments in technology utterly transformed the lives of millions. In the realms of industrial production, economics, and transportation, all aspects of the ways people interacted with each other and the world around them shifted. Innovations in science and medicine helped enhance and prolong life, leading to an explosion in the global population. This surge in growth ultimately had significant impacts on the earth’s environment and the quality of life for all of humanity.

Civil rights became a significant issue during this period, with women and minorities across the globe fighting for and winning greater freedoms. Literacy expanded, and education became increasingly accessible to populations around the world. Mass media and global communication brought the world community into increased contact, while in art new materials and styles were developed at an increasingly rapid pace. In all, the twentieth century was a period of both amazing possibility and incredible trauma.

War and Politics

The twentieth century saw the first wars on a global scale. World War I (1914–18) and World War II (1939–45) brought the most prominent nations of the world into horrific conflict. Advances in weaponry introduced machine guns, chemical weapons, and ultimately the nuclear bomb into the arsenals of global powers. Millions of people perished in these wars and other conflicts, such as the Korean War (1950–53), the Vietnam War (1957–75), and the Gulf War (1990–91).

While Britain and France largely dominated in the nineteenth century, in the twentieth, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most powerful political states, particularly in the wake of World War II. The Cold War that engulfed the two countries during much of the second half of the twentieth century led to great fear of nuclear war, in addition to significant ideological battles around democracy and capitalism on the one hand and communism on the other. While this ongoing conflict was one of the most significant consequences of World War II, the war also led to the establishment of the United Nations as a forum for global political exchange and cooperation.

Technology

Industrialism continued to flourish and expand in the twentieth century. New technologies and inventions abounded. In transportation, the Ford Model T was introduced in 1908. It was followed by high-speed trains as well as the development of jet liners, commercial air travel, and the space shuttle. In communications, the twentieth century saw the development of radio, television, computers, and the internet. Critically important advances in medicine included the discovery of antibiotics and penicillin. Vaccines were developed for diseases such as measles, chickenpox, and influenza, greatly alleviating suffering around the world, while the polio inoculation largely eradicated the disease by the end of the century.

The Ford assembly line in 1913. Industrialism continued to flourish and expand in the twentieth century, as new technologies and inventions abounded.

The list of technological inventions of the twentieth century is indeed abundant and diverse—it includes the light bulb, plastic, frozen food, scuba gear, the photocopier, the electric guitar, the vacuum cleaner, the parachute, sliced bread, the mobile phone, the air conditioner, the zipper, sunglasses, kitty litter, the laser, Post-it notes, the remote control, the flashlight, chemotherapy, nylon, the paper clip, the disposable razor, Velcro, the x-ray, and many, many more.

Modernism

In art, the twentieth century saw the most varied exploration of styles, materials, and modes of creation in history. The idea that art should primarily strive to be innovative—the concept of the avant-garde—was firmly established during this period. The century saw a quick succession of radical movements, such as Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Dada, Surrealism, De Stijl, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art, Conceptual Art, and Earth Art. All of these movements were concerned in some way with transforming the way art is made, understood, and even exhibited.

Artists of the twentieth century became less and less interested in the idea of representational art, or art that attempted to be beautiful or universal. In fact, it was as if artists made a list of the qualities of art at the beginning of the century—that it be recognizable, that it convey significant meaning, that it be aesthetically pleasing, that it be made of specific materials—and then spent the next hundred years eliminating those characteristics from their work. Imagery became increasingly difficult to read as abstraction came to the fore. Ultimately, many artists would explore totally non-objective art, or works that were interested primarily in formal characteristics such as color, line, and shape, rather than symbolism or traditional imagery.

Artists of the twentieth century were inspired by the rapid changes they saw in the world around them. The general dynamism and innovation present in modern art reflects the excitement many artists felt about the world. However, many other artists found aspects of that world to be disturbing and frightening. While much of modernism is hopeful and optimistic in its nature, we can also see much tension and anxiety in the art produced during this century.

SELECTED WORK

CARSON, PIRIE, SCOTT BUILDING, Louis Sullivan, Chicago, Illinois, 1899–1904

The Development of Steel-Cage Construction

The use of cast iron construction, which was first used at the Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale, became more and more prevalent throughout the nineteenth century.³⁶ It was used in a variety of buildings, such as St. Anne’s Church in Liverpool (constructed 1770–72), where all of the interior columns are made of cast iron. Perhaps the most famous British example was the Crystal Palace, built for London’s Great Exhibition of 1851. Designed by Joseph Paxton, the structure was 1,851 feet long and 128 feet high, allowing for 990,000 square feet of exhibition space. Built of cast iron and plate glass, the Crystal Palace was a modern architectural wonder, an appropriate building to house the most recent technology of the Industrial Revolution. At the close of the Great Exhibition, the Crystal Palace was rebuilt on Sydenham Hill in South East London. It remained there from 1854 until it was destroyed by fire in 1936.

The engineer and architect William Le Baron Jenney, who developed the steel skeleton framework in 1883.

The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 1885, was the first use of steel frame construction.

Innovations in metallurgy ultimately led to the development of steel—an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel is stronger and harder than cast iron, but can be similarly mass-produced for use in construction projects. Using steel, engineers and architects began to develop what we now refer to as “steel-cage construction”—a technique whereby a system of vertical steel columns and horizontal beams are riveted together to create a basic rectangular grid form. The floors, walls, and roof of the structure are then hung on this “skeleton,” which carries the weight of the building. Unlike earlier masonry structures, which needed the mass of thick walls to carry this weight, with steel-cage construction the strength of the material and distribution of load allowed for much “lighter” structures—both physically and visually.

The engineer and architect William Le Baron Jenney developed the steel skeleton framework in 1883, and the first use of steel frame construction was seen at the Home Insurance Building, which was erected in Chicago in 1885. This construction technique was one of many major architectural innovations developed in Chicago at the end of the nineteenth century and into the early years of the twentieth. These innovations, which would ultimately lead to the development of the skyscraper form as we know it today, were grounded in a major tragedy for the city—the Chicago Fire of 1871.

The Skyscraper: Development and Function

At 9:00 pm on the evening of October 8, 1871, a barn on De Koven Street in Chicago caught fire.³⁷ Several fires had burnt in the city just the day before, and so the fire companies were already exhausted by the time the barn fire began. Over the next forty-eight hours, much of the city burned to the ground. Approximately $192,000,000 in property was destroyed (out of a total value within the city of $575,000,000), and more than 100,000 people were left homeless.³⁸ While the financial and human toll of the fire was indeed extreme, it nonetheless provided an interesting opportunity. In one fell swoop, the entire core of a major urban area had been eliminated. In the aftermath of the fire, the city undertook a massive building campaign across this “blank slate.”

According to the authors of Industrial Chicago, published in 1891:

Those fires were fortunate events for the Garden City as a whole, and none profited directly by them, so much as art and architects, for the fires swept away forever the greater number of monstrous libels on artistic house-building, while only destroying the few noble buildings, of which Old Chicago could boast.³⁹

Indeed, in this period some of the most exciting and innovative architectural projects ever were undertaken in Chicago.

Cast-iron construction had been present in the city since 1843, when the foundry of Frederick Letz was first established. And while the development of cast iron had indeed been transformative, allowing for much quicker, cheaper, and larger construction projects, the material had one key weakness: it was not fireproof. Cast iron regularly melted in structural fires, thus ensuring the utter destruction of any building made of this material. In fact, many of the buildings lost in the Chicago Fire had been built of cast-iron.

One of the most important innovations developed in Chicago architecture of the period following the Great Fire was in the area of fireproofing. Cast-iron, and then steel-cage structures, were made more resistant to fire through the use of tile to sheathe the metal supports. George H. Johnson invented a system of hollow-tile construction for the subflooring and partitions in such buildings, which very effectively protected these structures from destruction in a fire. Eventually concrete would be used for this purpose—reinforced concrete is the basic construction material of most tall buildings today.

The other key invention that allowed for the development of the skyscraper was the perfection of the safety elevator. Elisha Otis introduced this technology in 1852. His was the first elevator design that prevented an elevator cab from plunging down through a building should its cable mechanism break. With the development of a reliable, safe, and quick elevator system, buildings began to climb in height. The first steam-driven elevator in Chicago was installed at the Charles B. Farwell Store in 1864. This technology was quickly followed by the development of hydraulic elevators, which first appeared in 1870.

As innovations in technology and construction techniques allowed for the possibility of tall buildings, the aesthetics of this form began to be of greater interest. What should a skyscraper look like? As a completely new architectural form, there were no established examples on which to rely. Ada Louise Huxtable, an architectural historian best known for her work on the development of the skyscraper in America, has identified four basic phases in the evolution of this building type: the functional, the eclectic, the modern, and the postmodern.⁴⁰ Huxtable’s system is basically chronological, though there is a certain amount of overlap between periods.

The aftermath of the great Chicago fire of 1871, photograph taken at the corner of Dearborn and Monroe Streets.

Elisha Otis’s Elevator Patent Drawing from 1861. Otis’s elevator was the first with a safety catch to guard against the breaking of the cable.

The functional phase related to simple capitalist economics. According to Huxtable, “the patron was the investment banker and the muse was cost-efficiency.”⁴¹ These structures were relatively simple in form and emphasized newly evolved and relatively inexpensive construction techniques. They were generally decorated in a way that replicated a classical Greek column, with a tripartite division of base, shaft, and capital zones. The eclectic period involved a tremendous amount of decorative play across the surface of the structure. Details reminiscent of Gothic, Greek, and Italianate historical buildings abound. The modern era, the form we generally refer to as the “International Style,” was characterized by a stripped-down aesthetic. This was the period of sleek, glass walled forms. And finally, the postmodern period reflected an interest in nostalgia and novelty—buildings were decorated with architectural references that were playfully appropriated and combined to create almost whimsical forms.

The skyscraper was the perfect form of architecture for its time. As industry grew and commercial activities became increasingly concentrated in urban environments during the early twentieth century, the need for a more efficient use of land was necessary. To fulfill this need, construction technology evolved to allow for building upward—thus making a single plot of land much more profitable. The development of metal framing, fireproofing, and passenger elevators, as well as other advances in the design of foundations, plumbing, heating, lighting, and ventilation systems, all helped to advance this form and allow for the amazing structures we see around the world today.

Louis Sullivan: Biography and Architectural Career

Louis Sullivan was a major figure in the history of skyscraper development. Born in Boston on September 3, 1856, Sullivan had loved bridges since he was a child.⁴² When he discovered that architects were responsible for designing bridges, he determined that he would become an architect. Sullivan attended the architecture school at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1872, but only stayed on for a year. He moved to Philadelphia and entered the architectural firm of Furness and Hewitt as an apprentice draftsman for the next year. It was in this position that Sullivan learned his love for decorative ornament in architecture, which was a hallmark of Frank Furness’s style. Sullivan moved to Chicago in 1873, where his family had relocated. Thus, he was present during the amazing building boom that came in the wake of the 1871 fire in the city. While in Chicago, Sullivan worked in the office of William Le Baron Jenney, the engineer and architect who is credited with developing steel-cage construction.

After a time of study in Paris during 1874, when he attended the École des Beaux-Arts, Sullivan returned to Chicago in 1875 to work in the office of Johnston and Edelman. He moved to David Adler’s firm in 1879, where he became a partner in 1880 and then an equal partner in 1881. It was during his time with Adler that Sullivan built some of his most memorable structures, including the Wainwright Building in St. Louis (1891) and the Prudential (Guaranty) Building in Buffalo (1894).

Although considered an architectural genius, Sullivan was an emotionally erratic man. He was an alcoholic, in addition to being arrogant and inflexible. All of these characteristics made him difficult to work with, and as he aged he received fewer and fewer commissions. Carson, Pirie, Scott was his last major urban project before his death on April 14, 1924. While it is perhaps marred by his personal failings, Sullivan left behind an architectural legacy of great importance. In addition to the buildings themselves, many of which are still extant, he also gave us the idea that in architecture “form ever follows function.” In his 1896 treatise The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered, he laid out the concept that the new skyscraper form should not be about past models, but rather, the new needs that they served should show themselves in new architectural modes. We do indeed see these ideas in Sullivan’s own work. [For much more on the architect, explore the Louis Sullivan Collection at the Art Institute of Chicago: http://www.artic.edu/research/louis-sullivan-collection.]

Carson, Pirie, Scott Building: Analysis

The Carson, Pirie, Scott Building was commissioned by the Schlesinger and Mayer Company, a dry-goods business that had been operating since the Civil War.⁴³ Adler and Sullivan were hired in 1891 to build an addition to the company’s original structure, which had been designed in 1873 by W. W. Boyington. The project was abandoned in 1893 in the wake of an economic depression, and Adler and Sullivan subsequently dissolved their partnership. In 1899, once the economy had improved, Schlesinger and Mayer hired Sullivan to build an entirely new structure, down the block from their existing building. In 1903, two structures adjacent to Sullivan’s new building were demolished, and Sullivan was again hired, now to extend the 1899 edifice. By 1904, Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company had purchased Schlesinger and Mayer, and the building assumed the name we know today. It is a testament to the quality of the design that when Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company hired Burnham and Company in 1906 to construct yet another addition, the new architects carefully followed Sullivan’s original design.

Photograph of Louis Sullivan, c.1890. Sullivan was a major figure in the history of skyscraper development.

The structure sits at 1 South State Street, at the corner of State and Madison. The majority of its skeleton is steel-frame, although the framing for the 1903 addition was built with cast-iron columns. There are six large bays down Madison and twelve down the longer side on State Street. The height of the building changes down each side, indicating the various additions that have been constructed over time. The structure’s tallest section is twelve stories, which we see at the corner and then down each side for a certain distance.

At the base of the building, the first two stories are wrapped with low-relief cast iron decoration. As the building rises, it is characterized by a strong horizontal orientation. The widows are typical “Chicago windows”—they have a three-part design, with a larger central panel and two flanking smaller panes which create an overall rectangular shape at each window opening. The skeleton is sheathed with terracotta tiles, and each story is decorated with ornamental bands framing the widows at both the sill and lintel lines.

The roofline of the building has changed over time. Sullivan originally built a large overhanging roof slab or cornice, which “capped” the building visually. In later renovations the cornice was removed, creating a smooth, flat surface all the way up the building’s height. The structure is now topped with a parapet, or low wall, which is generally regarded as too small and not proportional with the rest of the structure.

At the corner of State and Madison, the building has a distinctive cylindrical shape that continues up its height. This accentuates the main entrance to the store, as does an elaborate cast iron decoration framing the entrance pavilion. The corner of the building interrupts its basic horizontality and gives a strong vertical character to the structure.

One highlight of the building’s exterior is the ornate foliage decoration at street level down both lengths of the façade. Although it may appear purely ornamental, Sullivan considered this element to be significantly functional—it was intended to call attention to the building and the window displays and attract customers into the store. The ornament is somewhat Art Nouveau in style. It is made up of plant forms that seem to climb over the surface of the structure. If you look carefully, you can see the architect’s initials LHS embedded in the ornament as well. The pattern was lined out and sketched by Sullivan and then worked out in detail by George Grant Elmslie, another architect in Sullivan’s firm. Plaster molds for the design were created by Kristian Schneider, a sculptor who had made Sullivan’s ornament for twenty years. The molds were cast in iron and the panels were then attached to the base of the building. The iron was originally painted bronzed green (first a red coat was laid down and then a green layer over it, which let the red show through—this was intended to imitate oxidized bronze). At the Carson Company’s centennial in 1955 the decoration was gilded. It was painted black in the next year, and then gray, the color we see today, in 1962.

Close-up view of the entrance to the Carson, Pirie, Scott Building. An elaborate cast-iron decoration frames the entrance pavilion.

Yet another addition to the building was commissioned in 1960. Holabird & Root added a new eight-story element along the southward extension on State Street. This increased the number of bays on the west façade by three. The new section fits very well with the older portions—the original foliage ornament at the ground level was copied and cast in aluminum, and now decorates the new construction as well. The building was designated a Chicago Landmark in 1970. Carson’s closed in 2007. At that time, the building owners renamed it the Sullivan Center. It has since become a Target store.

SELECTED WORK

STILL-LIFE WITH CHAIR CANING, Pablo Picasso, 1912

The Development of Cubism

Cubism is a movement of central importance in the history of twentieth century art. Through their various explorations and attempts at challenging traditional ways of seeing and representing the world, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque completely upended art as it had been known since the Renaissance. Working very closely together in Paris around 1906/07, Picasso and Braque developed a radically avant-garde style, focused on the idea of presenting a more “truthful” representation of reality.

Perhaps the easiest way to understand the intent of Cubism, in its first, “Analytic” phase, is to imagine that you are given a teacup and are asked to draw a picture of it. Even if you have very little artistic skill, you would no doubt manage to outline the basic contours of the cup—its general shape, the curve of its handle, etc. Now imagine that you take the cup in your hand and turn it over and over, closely examining it from every possible point of view. Any of these additional viewpoints are as “real” as the drawing you have made. What you are recognizing is the key concept of Cubism. For Picasso and Braque, objects did not fully exist in the singular, frontally viewed manner in which they had been represented in traditional art. The cup also has an underside, a backside, an inside—and all of these views are present at once. The artists worked to break up forms as a way to analyze them and more truthfully present these various perspectives simultaneously.

The resulting images were almost completely illegible. For many viewers (then and now), these works were absurd. In fact, the name we use to identify this type of art was a contemporary insult to the style. Upon seeing examples of Braque and Picasso’s painting, the critic Louis Vauxcelles described them as “bizarreriés cubiques” or “cubic oddities.” When Braque and Picasso went on to evolve the second major phase of Cubism, Synthetic Cubism, their use of non-art materials would challenge viewers to an even greater degree.

Cubism was initially developed by Picasso and Braque together. Although Picasso has come down through history to be significantly better known than Braque, they were equal partners in their artistic endeavors. In fact, some of the most important breakthroughs they made were initiated by Braque. Because what they were doing was so radical, the artists relied heavily on each other. As Picasso remembered:

Georges Braque (l) and Pablo Picasso (r) worked very closely together in Paris around 1906/07 and developed Cubism, a radically avant-garde artistic style.

Almost every evening, either I went to Braque’s studio, or Braque came to mine. Each of us had to see what the other had done during the day. We criticized each other’s work. A canvas wasn’t finished unless both of us felt it was.⁴⁴

After its initial debut, Cubism attracted a variety of other artists. The first major exhibition of this work was shown in the spring of 1911, in Paris at the Salon des Indépendants. In Salle (Room) 41 Cubist paintings by artists such as Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, and Robert Delaunay were exhibited. Later movements would be directly influenced by Cubism—in particular Futurism in Italy and De Stijl in the Netherlands. [For a video providing an introductory overview of Cubism, see http://www.sophia.org/tutorials/cubism--3.]

Collage as a New Artistic Process

A key aspect of Cubism in its later Synthetic phase was the development of collage. Around 1912, Picasso and Braque began to experiment with the introduction of everyday materials and objects into their work. As was generally the case, Braque took a major leap forward in this regard. He purchased a roll of wallpaper at an Avignon wallpaper store. He cut up pieces of the paper, which had a faux wood grain pattern printed on it, and applied the pieces to several of his charcoal drawings. In works such as Fruit Dish and Glass (1912), Braque had, in effect, invented papier collé, or pasted paper. Braque remembered this moment: “I felt a great shock, and it was an ever greater shock for Picasso when I showed it to him.’”⁴⁵ In response, Picasso made almost a hundred works using collaged paper in the two weeks following Braque’s discovery. Picasso used a wider variety of materials: colored paper, wallpaper scraps, music sheets, and newspaper.

Papier collé is a specific form of collage. It uses paper only, while collage can include a much greater variety of materials (as we will see in the discussion of Still Life with Chair Caning). The idea of collage was radical at this time, as art was seen as being made of very specific, traditional materials. The introduction of such mundane materials here was a shocking degradation of art in the eyes of many contemporary viewers. This did not seem to bother the artists at all. In response to criticism of their use of nontraditional materials, Picasso said, “perhaps we’ll succeed in disgusting everybody: we have a lot more tricks up our sleeve.”⁴⁶

Picasso: Biography and Artistic Career

Pablo Picasso is largely regarded as one of the most important artists of the twentieth century. He is not only renowned for his contributions in the development of Cubism, but was also important in the invention of open-welded sculpture and for the amazing breadth of his artistic production. Picasso was incredibly prolific, producing literally tens of thousands of works in painting, sculpting, drawing, printing, textiles, ceramics, and stage design. The drama of his romantic life, and the ways in which it influenced his art makes him an object of fascination as well.

In works such as Fruit Dish and Glass (1912), Braque had, in effect, invented papier collé, or pasted paper.

Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso was born on October 25, 1881, in Málaga, Spain. His earliest artistic training began prior to 1890. Picasso studied initially with his father, José Ruiz y Blasco, who was a Spanish painter and art instructor. Picasso’s father taught drawing at the Escuela Provincial de Bellas Artes in Málaga.

Picasso later studied at the School of Fine Arts in Barcleona, where his family relocated in 1895. Picasso’s father, who was working at the school, convinced officials to allow Picasso to take their entrance exam for the school’s advanced class. The month-long exam took the young artist only a week to complete, and he was admitted to the school at age thirteen. He transferred briefly to the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid, and then, in order to further advance his training, left for Paris in 1901. It was there that he began to work in earnest as an artist.

His travel to France coincided with the development of his Blue Period (1901–04), which presented somber narratives in cool, blue tones. The Blue Period was followed by the Rose Period (1905–07), in which his coloration took a decidedly pinkish tone, and his subjects often involved circus themes. While all of these works are certainly of interest, it was the next phase—Cubism—that cemented Picasso’s place in art history.

After the revolutionary Cubist phase, Picasso moved through a series of different styles and media interests. He experimented with all manner of materials and adopted a classicizing approach, explored Surrealism, and even worked in the realm of public art. His personal life was complex. He had a series of significant romantic relationships, many of which were revealed in the art that he made over the course of his life. Picasso was married twice, first to the Russian ballerina Olga Khokhlova and then to Jacqueline Roque. He had four children. When he died on April 8, 1973, at the age of ninety-one, he was considered the most important living artist of his time.

Still Life with Chair Caning: Analysis

Still Life with Chair Caning is an extremely important work of the twentieth century. It is generally agreed that this was the first true collage in the history of art. Braque and Picasso would go on to explore the specific collage technique of papier collé from September of 1912, but this piece dates from March of that year. Rather than incorporating paper, here Picasso uses other non-art materials—a piece of rope for the work’s “frame” and a section of oilcloth printed with a pattern that reproduces a woven caning pattern.

This piece is considered an example of Synthetic Cubism. In the Analytic Cubist phase, Picasso and Braque were concerned primarily with breaking down and analyzing forms. In the Synthetic mode, they were interested in bringing a measure of reality back into their work—synthesizing their art with everyday life, often through the use of actual objects. This work is meant to illustrate the café life Picasso and Braque enjoyed in Paris. The subject is a tabletop, upon which the artist has rendered (albeit not terribly legibly!) various items that he would use when visiting such an establishment, such as a glass, a slice of lemon, a pipe, and a newspaper. In addition, the chair the artist is sitting on is indicated by the caning pattern.

Pablo Picasso is not only renowned for his contributions in the development of Cubism, but was also important in the invention of open-welded sculpture and for the amazing breadth of his artistic production.

Most of the painted objects are placed at the upper regions of the canvas and are depicted using Picasso’s standard Analytic Cubist style. We can see certain elements more clearly, such as the curve of the lemon rind and the segments of the fruit to the upper right, as well as the stem of the pipe toward the upper left. Also highly visible are the letters “JOU.” “Jou” means “game” in French, but these are also the first letters of the word “journal,” or newspaper. The style of the font here is specific—this is the masthead for the Paris paper Le Journal. Picasso is playfully juxtaposing these two meanings—his work is a puzzle or game that must be carefully examined by the viewer.

The lower portion of the canvas is covered by a swatch of oilcloth, which has the decorative pattern indicated by the work’s title. Oilcloth is somewhat like our present-day contact paper. It is a cloth or linen material coated with linseed oil. This coating makes the fabric waterproof. In Picasso’s time, oilcloth was used to protect objects such as luggage and was also applied to various surfaces to protect them and perhaps make them more visually interesting. Here, again, we see a “game”—the oilcloth may simultaneously suggest an oilcloth-covered tabletop and the caned chair next to it. Or perhaps the table top is glass, and we are seeing through it to the chair seat below? Picasso further teases us by including this extremely realistic element in the midst of his other highly cubist objects, some of which are actually painted in such a way as to visually bleed over the oilcloth pattern.

Finally, the image is framed with a piece of rope. This adds another striking material to the piece and also highlights the oval form of the painting. It no doubt refers to the shape of the table at which the artist sits. This detail suggests the idea that we are looking down at the surface of a tabletop although Picasso subverts this with the Cubist elements, which are painted to appear as though we are looking at them from a wide variety of viewpoints. Overall, the artist presents us with an image that moves in and out of our grasp—it seems at once very easy to read yet extremely difficult to comprehend.

SELECTED WORK

NUMBER 1, 1950 (LAVENDER MIST), Jackson Pollock, 1950

Abstract Expressionism

Abstract Expressionism emerged in the aftermath of World War II. It began in America, in New York City. Abstract Expressionism was the first art movement developed in the United States to achieve international recognition. Indeed, it was during this period that the “center” of the art world shifted from Paris to New York.

The work of “The New York School,” as these artists were called at the time, falls into two broad categories: Action Painting and Color Field Painting. Color Field, which was represented in the work of artists such as Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman, was characterized by the juxtaposition of broad areas of color on the surface of the canvas. Action Painting generally demonstrated an aggressive brushstroke and paint that had been applied in a particularly dynamic way. Artists such as Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning are identified as Action Painters. Regardless of the specific visual mode, these artists were all concerned with creating expressive, abstracted works of art. While for many viewers the first experience of Abstract Expressionism may be challenging—a typical reaction is “a three year old could do that!”—in reality, the work is very conceptually complex and has deeply meaningful intent.

The key to understanding Abstract Expressionism is to know that the work is a direct reaction to the events of World War II. In the wake of the horrors of the Holocaust and the deployment of the atom bomb, Abstract Expressionist artists desired to heal the world and reconnect humanity. The abstraction of their work was an effort to achieve universality—anyone speaking any language and holding any individual set of beliefs would have the same fundamental reaction to a work if it did not indicate any specific narrative content. If the work were perceived on a strictly formal level, it would be equally accessible to everyone.

This desire for universality was connected to another key component of Abstract Expressionism—its reference to the ideas of Carl Jung. Jung, who was a student of the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, extended Freud’s ideas on the unconscious. Freud believed that beneath our conscious state exists a deeper level—the unconscious. The unconscious is where our real desires and motivations lie, and it is the unconscious that directs our conscious behavior, even without our understanding its effect. Jung added to Freud’s system the idea of the “collective unconscious.” Jung believed that at an even deeper level than our unconscious, there is another aspect of our selves. It is this aspect, the collective unconscious, that makes us human and that connects us to every other human that has ever lived. The Abstract Expressionist artists hoped to access this collective unconscious. Through their own creation of art, or through a viewer’s reception of their work, they hoped to tap into our collective humanity. By doing so, they hoped that viewers would become more aware of what connects us all and that such knowledge would make us less likely to act inhumanely toward each other.

Jackson Pollock: Biography and Artistic Career

Jackson Pollock was born on January 29, 1912, in Cody, Wyoming.⁴⁷ Pollock was the youngest of five boys born to Stella May and Leroy Pollock. The family moved to California and lived there and in Arizona throughout the artist’s childhood. LeRoy Pollock was a farmer who later worked as a land surveyor for the government. He often left the family to pursue work, leaving Stella May to care for the children alone.

Pollock’s older brother Charles began studies at the Otis Art Institute in Los Angeles in the early 1920s. He regularly sent home copies of The Dial, a monthly art periodical, which first exposed Pollock to modern art. Charles later moved to New York to study with Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League. Pollock followed him there in 1930 and became a student of Benton himself, attending the artist’s mural class.

Pollock first exhibited publically in the Eighth Exhibition of Watercolors, Pastels and Drawings by American and French Artists at the Brooklyn Museum in 1935. He worked for the Works Progress Administration mural division starting in August of that year as well. Pollock first met the painter Lee Krasner briefly 1936, then again in 1942 when they showed together in the exhibition, American and French Paintings at the McMillen Gallery. The artists married on October 25, 1945.

Renowned psychiatrist and psychotherapist Carl Jung, whose ideas were a key component of the Abstract Expressionist movement.

Pollock had his first solo exhibition at Peggy Guggenheim’s Art of This Century gallery in November 1943. It was the first exhibit there by an American artist. After the show, Guggenheim signed Pollock to a one-year contract that provided him with a monthly stipend. This allowed the artist to paint full time. Under Guggenheim’s direction, Pollock’s career flourished. He had a number of exhibitions and sales while represented by Guggenheim, most notably in May of 1944, when the Museum of Modern Art in New York acquired The She-Wolf.

Though Pollock’s professional life was moving forward, he struggled with depression and alcoholism throughout his adult life. He began psychiatric treatment with a Jungian analyst in 1937. He began bringing drawings to his therapy sessions in 1939. He and Lee Krasner agreed that it would be best for his mental health if they were to leave New York. Shortly after their marriage, in early November 1945, they moved to East Hampton on Long Island. It was there that Pollock had his major artistic breakthrough in the development of his drip technique.

By the mid-1950s, Pollock’s personal difficulties paralyzed his artistic production. He stopped painting as his marriage to Krasner grew increasingly distant. On August 11, 1956, when Krasner was away traveling in Europe, Pollock crashed his car on a back road in the Hamptons. Drunk at the time, Pollock hit a tree, killing himself and one of his passengers, Edith Metzger. Metzger was a friend of Ruth Kligman, Pollock’s then-girlfriend and the third passenger in the car. Kligman survived the crash. Shortly after the accident, the Museum of Modern Art organized a memorial exhibition of Pollock’s paintings, which was on display from December 1956–February 1957.

Pollock’s “Drip” Technique

Pollock began to use his famous “drip” technique in the summer of 1946, after he and Lee Krasner moved to Long Island. The couple purchased a home in East Hampton that sat on a few acres of land with a small barn. They called the property “The Springs.” For the first year, Pollock used an upstairs bedroom as his studio. He then converted the barn into a studio space, and it was there that he began to drip paint onto large pieces of canvas laid out on the floor. Pollock would pour liquid enamel paint straight from the can, or dip stiffened brushes or sticks into the paint, and then fling the material across the canvas as he stood above it. As Kirk Varnedoe stated in the catalog to the 1998 Pollock retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York:

Jackson Pollock painting, with his wife, Lee Krasner, seated behind him.

…there is no grand incident to mark this passage—no legendary effort or single ‘breakthrough’ picture,” but “in the unheated barn room, over the prime painting months of the summer and early fall, apparently with no fanfare and little or no external encouragement, Pollock enacted a series of decisions that would allow him to break with his formulas and…step beyond his peers.⁴⁸

Pollock himself described his process in this way:

My painting does not come from the easel. I hardly ever stretch my canvas before painting. I prefer to tack the unstretched canvas to the hard wall or the floor. I need the resistance of a hard surface. On the floor I am more at ease. I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk around it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting…. I continue to get further away from the usual painter’s tools…I prefer sticks, trowels, knives and dripping fluid paint or a heavy impasto with sand, broken glass, and other foreign matter added.⁴⁹

Pollock’s new technique received mixed reactions from critics and the public. When the works were first shown at the Betty Parsons Gallery in New York City in 1948, sales were almost nonexistent. Within a year, however, Pollock was featured in a Life magazine article. In the photograph accompanying the August 8, 1949 piece, Pollock stands, leaning against one of his works with his arms and ankles crossed. A cigarette dangles from his mouth, and the caption reads, “Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?” [For a film presenting Pollock painting and discussing his work, see http://www.sfmoma.org/explore/multimedia/videos/250.]

Action Painting

The art critic Harold Rosenberg, who enthusiastically supported it, gave Action Painting its name. He explained the development of the style in this way:

The canvas began to appear to one American painter after another as an arena in which to act—rather than as a space in which to reproduce, re-design, analyze or ‘express’ an object, actual or imagined. What was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event. The painter no longer approached his easel with an image in his mind; he went up to it with material in his hand to do something to that other piece of material in front of him. The image would be the result of that encounter.⁵⁰

Pollock is perhaps the best representative of this aspect of Abstract Expressionism. The incredible physicality of his painting process made it particularly “active.” Pollock used his entire body in the creation of his works, as he danced around his canvases, working them from all sides, stretching and reaching to drop across the entire surface of a canvas that might be ten or more feet in length.

Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist): Analysis

Number 1, 1950, more popularly known as Lavender Mist, is an example of Action Painting. The canvas measures 7’3” x 9’10”, and it is built up of oil, enamel, and aluminum paint. The colors used are black, gray, white, pinkish beige, blue, and yellow, which are applied in allover drips and splatters. There are some straighter lines, primarily in white and black, but in general, the paint appears as looping skeins across the surface of the canvas. The amount of paint appears a bit heavier at the bottom edge of the work—toward the top more vertical lines of black allow broader areas of the raw canvas to peek through.

The art critic Clement Greenberg apparently suggested the work’s alternate title. Although there is no lavender paint used here, the atmospheric quality of the work’s lacy surface does seem to convey a sense of mist. Adding to the evocative quality of the painting is the addition of a series of handprints at the upper left corner and top of the canvas. Pollock “signed” the work as prehistoric cave painters marked their own mural images.

SELECTED WORK

MARILYN DIPTYCH, Andy Warhol, 1962

Pop Art

Pop Art is best known as an art movement of the late 1950s and 1960s that focused its imagery and processes on aspects of popular culture. Though the movement was technically first seen in England, it has since come to be understood as quintessentially American. Pop is most significant for its attempt to collapse the line between art and life. Pop artists generally did not generate their own unique imagery—they borrowed their visual forms from the everyday worlds of advertising, magazines, comic books, billboards, and television. In this use of found images, Pop can be seen as related to the type of issues we discussed with collage and Picasso’s Still Life with Chair Caning.

Pop Art is often understood as a reaction to the seriousness of the Abstract Expressionist movement that immediately preceded it. This is seen not only in the visual forms that Pop takes—its focus on consumer products, low-brow publications, celebrity imagery, etc.—but also in its methods of production. For example, artists such as Andy Warhol used the silkscreen technique. Until the time of Pop art, this process was generally used in commercial production, not high art. By using mechanical means, Warhol moved away from the highly personal, idiosyncratic, and hands-on technique of artists such as Jackson Pollock.

Pop Art was important in helping contemporary viewers see the world in a new way. By bringing images lifted from cheap comic books into the art gallery, for example, artists such as Roy Lichtenstein forced audiences to truly see and reconsider comic book imagery. The appreciation we have today for the aesthetics of popular culture has certainly been influenced by the work of the Pop artists.

Andy Warhol: Biography and Artistic Career

Andy Warhol was born Andrew Warhola on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.⁵¹ His parents, Andrej and Julia Warhola, were immigrants from what is now eastern Slovakia. Andrej was a construction worker, and Julia sold paper flowers and other handicrafts door to door in Pittsburgh. Warhol had two older brothers, Paul and John.

From the age of fourteen, Warhol attended a free art and art appreciation training course at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie-Mellon University). After high school, Warhol entered the Carnegie Institute and majored in pictorial design. During his summers off from college, he worked as a window dresser at the Joseph Horne department store in Pittsburgh. After graduating in June of 1949, Warhol moved to New York City. There he worked as a commercial artist—he was hired to create drawings for Glamour magazine, and would eventually work for Vogue, Seventeen, The New Yorker, Harper’s Bazaar, Tiffany & Co, and Bergdorf Goodman. His commercial work included advertisements, window displays, stationary designs, book jackets, and record covers. It was in New York during this period that he began to use the name “Warhol.” Warhol won various awards for his commercial work, including the Art Directors Club Medal for newspaper advertising art in 1952. He also had his first solo art exhibition in June of that year, at the Hugo Gallery. By the early 1960s, he had begun to create paintings of comic strip images. After seeing a Roy Lichtenstein show at the Leo Castelli gallery in 1961, Warhol invited the art dealer Ivan Karp to his studio to see his own work. Karp became a key champion of Warhol’s work.

President Jimmy Carter (l) with Andy Warhol (r) during a reception for inaugural portfolio artists.

The early 1960s were critically important for Warhol’s career. It was during this period that he began to participate in major exhibitions and became well known as a Pop artist. In 1962 he created his first silkscreen works, as well as the first Campbell’s soup can images. He purchased his first 16mm movie camera in 1963 and began making films in that year. It was also during this period that he purchased his first Polaroid camera and established a studio at 321 East Forty-Seventh Street, which would eventually be known as The Factory.

On June 3, 1968, Valerie Solanis, the founder and sole member of S.C.U.M. (The Society for Cutting Up Men) shot Warhol at The Factory. Though he survived the shooting, Warhol’s health was never the same. As he was recovering from routine gallbladder surgery at New York Hospital, he suffered a cardiac arrhythmia in his sleep and died on February 22, 1987. The Andy Warhol Foundation was established that year in honor of Warhol and his contributions to American Art.

Silkscreen as an Artistic Process

Silkscreen, also known as serigraphy, serigraph printing, and screen printing, is based on the stenciling technique.⁵² In this process, a woven mesh of silk is stretched tight over a wooden or metal frame. The resulting object looks much like a stretched canvas, although in this case the surface is permeable. A stencil is adhered to the silk panel—it may be painted on the surface in lacquer, shellac, or a prepared blockout medium, or cut from a material such as cardboard, metal, or film and then attached to the silk or the frame. The stretched silk is laid onto the surface to be printed, and ink is pushed through the fabric with a brush or squeegee. The stencil blocks the passage of ink onto the printed surface in the areas where it is present, and where there is no barrier, the ink seeps through onto the paper or canvas below.

There are many potential variations on this basic technique. A wide variety of materials may be used, both for the creation of the stencil and the actual printing of the image. In addition, it is possible to reverse the process and paint or block out the “positive” image on the screen, thus creating a more silhouetted form. Finally, images with several colors are possible, typically with the use of multiple screens, one for each color. When multiple screens are used, they must be carefully aligned or “registered” in order to create a clean impression.

A diagrammatic sketch of the silkscreen printing process.

Printing with stencils was first developed in ancient China and Japan around the year 1000. The process has been used in modern times primarily for commercial applications, such as sign and poster production. It is only since the 1930s that the technique has been used as a fine art medium. [For a series of videos demonstrating a variety of silk-screening techniques, see http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLCA00652A2C2DAF94&feature=view_all.]

Marilyn Diptych: Analysis

Marilyn Diptych is an example of Warhol’s use of the silkscreen process on canvas. Thus, the work illustrates the artist’s interest in blurring the lines between printing and painting techniques. The piece is quite large in scale—82” x 57”. It consists of two panels; the one on the left is printed in color, while the one on the right is presented in black and white. Warhol uses synthetic polymer paint and silkscreen ink here to create fifty images of the actress Marilyn Monroe.

Warhol’s Marilyn Diptych is an example of a silkscreen produced using a photo reproduction process.⁵³ With this technique, a photographic image can be reproduced using the silkscreen method. Here, a chemically light-sensitive gelatin is placed on the screen or on a sheet of polyester film such as Mylar. A positive design rendered on a clear sheet of Mylar or a photographic positive is placed over the gelatin film, and both are exposed to light. As light passes through the clear, non-opaque part of the design, the exposed gelatin hardens. The gelatin areas below the opaque areas remain soft and are eventually washed away with water. Thus, what was opaque in the original becomes an open area on the screen, and the rest becomes the blockout stencil.

A photographic stencil can be created through a direct or indirect method. In the direct method, the screen itself is sensitized with a liquid solution, exposed, developed, and washed out so that the stencil is directly on the screen. In the indirect transfer method, the same steps are followed, except that the photographic gelatin layer is sensitized, exposed, and developed while on a temporary support of plastic. The gelatin film is then transferred to the screen, dried, and the plastic backing removed.

The image Warhol uses here is a publicity photograph from Monroe’s film Niagara (1953). It was not created by Warhol, but selected by him and reproduced here. He would use this image many times, in various forms for a large body of work dedicated to Marilyn Monroe. Warhol often created images of celebrities, including Elvis Presley, Jacqueline Kennedy, Liz Taylor, and even himself. These images were presented in Warhol’s Pop Art style in the same way that he reproduced Campbell’s soup cans, Coca-Cola bottles, and Brillo Soap Pad boxes. In this way, he treats celebrities like the other consumer products of American popular culture.

The left panel of Marilyn Diptych is very brightly colored. In twenty-five repeated images, we see Marilyn’s face in close-up. Her head is silhouetted against a gold backdrop. Her hair is a bright yellow, while her face is a strong pink. She wears bright blue eye shadow; a color that is repeated in the collar of her blouse. Her lips are a rich red tone, and her teeth shine bright white. The color is applied in flat areas, and the overall effect suggests a mask. Each image is somewhat different, with slight variations in the placement of the colors across Monroe’s face. In the language of silkscreen, we would say that Warhol improperly registers his multiple color screens here. However, we must assume that these “errors” were intentional on the artist’s part.

On the right, the twenty-five images are repeated, though without color. Here we see stark black and white. The images are even less cleanly printed on this side of the canvas than on the color panel. Some of the heads, which are arranged in a grid of five by five, are more clearly visible, while others are less so. For example, in the second column from the left, Marilyn’s face is largely obscured by streaks of dark black ink. In contrast, in the last column of the series, it seems as if Warhol did not use enough ink—Marilyn’s face is ghostly and seems to disappear at the upper right corner of the work. Again, although these might be seen as technical mistakes, we assume that such details instead support Warhol’s underlying conceptual intent.

SELECTED WORK

MIKO NO INORI, Mariko Mori, 1996

Video Technology: Development and History

The technology to record visual images on magnetic tape was first introduced in 1956.⁵⁴ The Germans had developed the ability to capture sound on such tapes by 1934, and the Magnetophon for radio recording was standard there by 1938. During World War II, John T. Mullin, a U.S. Army electronic specialist, was sent to Germany to look into the country’s possible use of high frequency energy to jam Allied airplane engines in flight. In his investigations, Mullin found the Magnetophon. He shipped two machines to New Jersey for study by the U.S. Army and also sent two home to San Francisco for his own use.

By early 1946, Mullin had reassembled the Magnetophons and rewired them with American parts. He demonstrated the machine in May of 1946 at a meeting of the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco. Mullin also demonstrated the Magnetophon for Bing Crosby, who at the time had a show on NBC radio. Crosby was interested in pre-recording his program, and Mullin ultimately helped him record the 1947–48 season of his show. This was the first professional broadcast of magnetic tape recording and playback in the United States.

A magnetophon from a German radio station in World War II.

With the success of audio recording on magnetic tape came an interest in video recording as well. RCA was the first company to seriously focus on developing the capability of capturing and replaying videotape. The company had been experimenting with the technology since after the end of World War II. However, it was Ampex that developed the first commercially viable videotape recorder in 1956. It demonstrated the machine at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters Show in Chicago in April of 1956. The Ampex system recorded in black and white, and each unit cost $75,000. The company anticipated selling thirty systems over the next four years. In fact, they took orders for eighty in the first week and ultimately sold six hundred in the first four years of production. These systems were used by television stations throughout the United States.

Video became available to the general public with the development of Sony’s Portapack in 1967.

Video became available to the general public with the development of Sony’s Portapack in 1967. The Portapack was a battery-powered recording system that could be carried and operated by one person. It was relatively inexpensive at $1500. It allowed for the recording and immediate playback of footage, unlike the film cameras in use by the public at the time. Photographic film cameras, such as 16mm, 8mm, and Super 8 equipment, allowed for the recording of moving pictures, but the films needed to be developed in a specialized lab before they were viewable. With video, images could be recorded and then watched immediately. This ease of use and low cost made video extremely popular for the production of home movies and was also important in providing artists and activists with the ability to make video works outside of the established production company system.

Video Art: Development and History

One of the first people to explore the possibilities of video technology for artistic expression was the Korean-American artist Nam June Paik. Paik was involved in the avant-garde Fluxus movement of the 1960s. Fluxus was interested in blurring the lines between artistic forms, as well as the line between art and life. Through Fluxus, Paik was involved in many Happenings and also explored the possibilities of electronic music. His interest in technology insured that he would find the new Portapack intriguing, and in fact, he purchased one immediately. Paik created many works of art exploring video technology and also constructed his own machines using video components. His video synthesizer of 1970 combined two or more video images into a single picture, and he built objects such as the TV Cello and TV Bra for his performance partner, classical cellist Charlotte Moorman.

Video became a key aspect of the 1970s art world. Artists used the medium in a variety of ways, particularly in works that focused on ideas of abstraction, representation, and the use of closed-circuit environments.⁵⁵ Artists such as Nam June Paik were interested in video in its more manipulated and abstracted forms. In abstract video works, “imagery is artificially created by the manipulation of the TV frequency, and comes strictly from the technological processes inherent in television and its systems.”⁵⁶ Paik’s process with such works often involved recording video images, and then manipulating and rerecording them in playback on a television screen. Paik exploited the magnetic quality of videotape by applying magnets to the machinery as a video image was screened, thus warping and distorting the image. This manipulated form was then recorded and might be replayed and re-distorted a number of times. The resulting video would be highly abstracted—it was often possible to see only momentary glimpses of any original recognizable imagery.

Artists such as Eleanor Antin and Vito Acconci explored video in a more representational way. They recorded themselves in action, capturing imagery in a fairly straightforward manner. Some of these video works recorded performances (another important aspect of art in the 1970s), though a “purer” form of this type of video involves the artist acting specifically for the video camera with the explicit intention of creating a piece of video art. A great number of artists active in the 1970s made these representational videos, as they reveled in the newness and ease of the medium.

And, finally, many artists explored the idea of the closed circuit system with installations involving video cameras and live playback monitors. Works by Dan Graham and Bruce Nauman fall most clearly in this category. An example is Nauman’s Live-Taped Video Corridor of 1970. In this work, the artist constructed a “corridor” made of two walls set very close together and meeting at one end. At this end were placed two television monitors, one stacked on top of the other. A camera was set at the entrance to the corridor, which a viewer was meant to enter. As the viewer entered the space and approached the monitors, it became clear that the top screen was playing a live feed from the camera at the entrance. The second screen displayed pre-taped footage of the passageway without any viewer present. As one walked down the corridor and neared the live feed monitor, it was possible to see one’s back “retreating” from the camera. The disorienting experience was made possible through the specific characteristics and capabilities of video technology.

In addition to their own, often spontaneous explorations with video in its earliest stages, artists had many formal opportunities to work with the technology as well. In 1967 the Rockefeller Foundation established Artist in Residence Programs at WNET-TV Laboratory in New York, WGBH-TV in Boston, and KQED-TV in San Francisco. Through these residencies, artists could work with the most advanced video technology and have their works broadcast in the largest television markets in the country. These programs helped establish video art as a significant medium for art making, and it continues to be important today, even as the technology has evolved rapidly since its first invention in the 1950s. Generally, contemporary artists such as Mariko Mori use digital video, which was first introduced commercially by Sony in 1986.

Mariko Mori: Biography and Artistic Career

Mariko Mori was born in Tokyo in 1967. She attended Bunka Fashion College in Tokyo from 1986–88. She then moved to London to attend the Byam Shaw School of Art (1988–89) and the Chelsea College of Art (1989–92). She participated in the prestigious Whitney Museum of American Art Independent Study Program in New York from 1992–93 and has lived and worked in the city since.

Mori is primarily a video artist and photographer. She uses highly sophisticated digital technology to create elaborate video, installation, and photographic works that reference contemporary culture as well as traditional Japanese and Buddhist imagery. Her works blend Eastern and Western forms and include elements as varied as fashion, popular culture, manga, science fiction, and ancient religious art.

Mariko Mori uses highly sophisticated digital technology to create elaborate video, installation, and photographic works that reference contemporary culture as well as traditional Japanese and Buddhist imagery.

Since 1993, Mori has had many solo and group exhibitions at venues such as the Royal Academy of Arts in London, the Venice Biennial in Venice, and the Asia Society in New York. Her works are represented in prestigious art collections all over the world, including the Guggenheim Museum in New York, New York’s Museum of Modern Art, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago, the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, and the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

Miko no Inori: Analysis

Miko no Inori is a digital video work. [To view a short clip from the video, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-0KPS1ZzDw.] The piece was produced in an edition of a hundred and has a duration of twenty-nine minutes twenty-three seconds. The title of the work, Miko no Inori, translates as the Shaman-Girl’s Prayer. In the video, Mori is seen standing in the Kansai International Airport in Osaka, Japan. She appears as a striking creature in this video. Mori wears a shiny white bodysuit with bulbous wing forms covering her chest. Her hair is also white, in a style that frames her brightly made up face, and she wears a shiny disk form on the top of her head. She looks almost otherworldly, with her strange costume and eyes which glow bright white.

Mori stands frontally throughout the length of the video. The camera zooms in and out—toward her face, back out to show her body to the waist, and close up to her face again. The space behind her presents a view of one of the airport’s terminals. Opened in 1994, Kansai Airport was designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano. It is famous for its slick visual form. In the video we see the bright lights and elaborate architecture behind the artist, which gives the setting a very futuristic look. We can even recognize air passengers who walk behind Mori, pushing their luggage and seemingly unaware of the strange figure in their space. Occasionally a bystander will look toward Mori as she performs for the camera, but for the most part, she seems of little interest to the crowd in the airport.

Kansai International Airport in Osaka, Japan, which was designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano and is famous for its slick visual form, is the setting in which Mariko Mori recorded Miko no Inori

Throughout the video, Mori cradles and rolls a crystal ball in her hands. She moves the ball up and down in front of her body and sometimes holds it in front of her face, allowing us to see her bright eyes radiating through its glass. Her gestures are slow and mesmerizing. Her movements are accompanied by a soundtrack that includes a haunting song, sung in Japanese by the artist herself. According to the website of the Art Institute of Chicago, which owns a copy of the piece:

The figure recalls a fortune-teller with her proverbial crystal ball, but she also invites other interpretations that coexist uneasily: she can be seen as a bodhisattva—a spiritual guide who forgoes nirvana out of compassion for those who suffer—but she also resembles a model promoting a new product, gazing directly at the audience with her glass orb seductively in hand.⁵⁷

The complexity of the potential references here—religious, commercial, and even suggestive of a figure from a Japanese anime production—are typical of Mori’s work. Her interest in creating contemporary imagery infused with a variety of religious and spiritual references reflects her central artistic concerns. According to Sean Kelly, the gallery that represents Mori’s work in New York City, “her practice, which is founded in the belief of the interconnectedness of all things, explores universal questions at the intersection of the cosmos, life, death, reality, spirituality and technology.”⁵⁸

Mori is considered one of the most important contemporary artists to emerge from Japan. Her work, which reflects her own connection to both East and West, has found a significant following since her emergence in 1993. She is considered a mid-career artist, and it will be very interesting to see how her work develops in the future. Will she continue to explore similar themes and imagery? Will technology continue to drive her work both conceptually and in terms of its physical production? How will new innovations affect the art she makes and the ways that we can understand it?

Section V Summary

images The twentieth century was a time of unprecedented change in politics, technology, and art.

images New political arrangements transformed the map of the world, and war and conflict became global in scale.

images Incredible developments in technology utterly transformed the lives of millions. Innovations in science and medicine helped enhance and prolong life, leading to an explosion in the global population. This surge in growth ultimately had significant impacts on the earth’s environment and the quality of life for all of humanity.

images Civil rights became a significant issue during this period, with women and minorities across the globe fighting for and winning greater freedoms.

images Literacy expanded, and education became increasingly accessible, while mass media and global communication brought the world community into even greater contact.

images The twentieth century saw the first wars on a global scale, as World Wars I and II brought the most prominent nations of the world into horrific conflict. These conflicts were waged with the most advanced weaponry, including machine guns, chemical weapons, and ultimately the nuclear bomb.

images The United States and the Soviet Union were the most powerful political powers of the twentieth century. The Cold War that engulfed the two countries during much of the second half of the century led to great fear of nuclear war, in addition to significant ideological battles around democracy and capitalism on the one hand and communism on the other.

images Industrialism continued to flourish and expand in the twentieth century, as new technologies and inventions abounded in areas such as transportation, communication, and medicine.

images Art of the twentieth century saw the most varied exploration of styles, materials, and modes of creation in history. A focus on innovation and the concept of the avant-garde led to a quick succession of radical movements, such as Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Dada, Surrealism, De Stijl, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art, Conceptual Art, and Earth Art.

images   Artists of the twentieth century became less and less interested in the idea of representational art, or art that attempted to be beautiful or universal. Imagery became increasingly difficult to read as abstraction and non-objective art came to the fore.

images Artists of the twentieth century were inspired by the rapid changes they saw in the world around them. While much of modernism is hopeful and optimistic in its nature, we can also see much tension and anxiety in the art produced during this century.

images  Louis Sullivan, Carson, Pirie, Scott Building, Chicago, Illinois, 1899

images While cast-iron construction was a very significant innovation for architecture, it was the development of steel that allowed for the massively scaled construction projects that we see today.

images The engineer and architect William Le Baron Jenney developed the steel-cage construction system in 1883. The technique was first seen at the Home Insurance Building (1885) in Chicago.

images Chicago was a major center for architectural innovation in the late nineteenth century, in the wake of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. After that disaster, improvements in fireproofing, as well as safer elevator systems, allowed for the construction of taller and taller buildings.

images Louis Sullivan was a central figure in the development of the skyscraper. He worked for a variety of architectural firms in Chicago during the post-fire building boom and worked on a number of important projects. Sullivan is also significant for his articulation of the concept that in architecture, “form ever follows function.”

images The Carson, Pirie, Scott Building is an important monument in the evolution of the skyscraper type. It is particularly known for the elaborate cast-iron decoration wrapping its first two stories, as well as the distinctive cylindrical shape of the store’s main entrance and corner.

images  Pablo Picasso, Still Life with Chair Caning, 1912

images Cubism was a key movement in the history of early twentieth-century art. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque invented Cubism, both in its Analytic and Synthetic forms. In doing so, they radically challenged ideas about art and representation.

images Around 1912, Picasso and Braque began to experiment with the incorporation of everyday materials into their work. Braque purchased a roll of wallpaper, which he cut up and applied to several of his charcoal drawings. This invention, papier collé, is a specific form of collage using paper. Other works by both artists would include other collaged materials.

images Pablo Picasso is largely regarded as one of the most important artists of the twentieth century. While Cubism is perhaps his most significant contribution, he created tens of thousands of works in a wide variety of media and styles over the course of his long life.

images Still Life with Chair Caning is generally understood to be the first true collage in the history of art. Here Picasso illustrates Parisian café life through his rendering of various items such as a glass, a slice of lemon, a pipe, and a newspaper. The artist also includes a piece of oilcloth with a caning pattern, as well as a rope border for the work, suggesting that the items are seen on a tabletop.

images  Jackson Pollock, Number 1, 1950 (lavender mist), 1950

images Abstract Expressionism emerged in the United States in the aftermath of World War II. Abstract Expressionist works are generally categorized as Action or Color Field paintings. Important artists of the movement include Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Willem de Kooning, and Jackson Pollock. These artists were responding to the horrors of World War II and attempting to heal the world in the wake of that catastrophe.

images Jackson Pollock was born on January 29, 1912, in Cody, Wyoming. He moved to New York City to study art with Thomas Hart Benton in 1930. Pollock had a very successful career, though he struggled with depression and alcoholism throughout his life. He is best known for his “drip” painting technique.

images Pollock’s most significant artistic innovation was his development of a new way to apply paint to canvas. Pollock laid his canvas on the floor and then circled it, dripping and flinging paint across it from above. This dynamic technique allowed the artist to use his entire body in the creation of his works.

images Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist) is an example of Abstract Expressionism’s Action painting mode. The large canvas is covered with skeins of oil, enamel, and aluminum paint. The colors used are black, gray, white, pinkish beige, blue, and yellow, applied in allover drips and splatters.

images  Andy Warhol, Marilyn Diptych, 1962

images Pop Art was a movement of the late 1950s and 1960s that focused its imagery on aspects of popular culture, particularly American popular culture. Pop images were borrowed from the everyday worlds of advertising, magazines, comic books, billboards, and television.

images Andy Warhol was born Andrew Warhola on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. His early career focused on advertising and commercial art, rather than fine art production. When he did begin to make works for exhibition, his art was particularly focused on images of consumer products and celebrities. In addition, much of it was produced using the mechanical process of silkscreen.

images Silkscreen is based on the stenciling technique. The process has been used primarily for commercial applications, such as sign and poster production. It is only since the 1930s that silkscreen has been used as a fine art medium.

images Marilyn Diptych is an example of Warhol’s use of the silkscreen process on canvas. It consists of two panels; the one on the left is printed in color, while the one on the right is presented in black and white. All together, the panels illustrate fifty repeated images of the actress Marilyn Monroe. The source image is based on a publicity photograph from Monroe’s film Niagara (1953).

images  Mariko Mori, Miko no inori, 1996

images Ampex developed the first commercial videotape recorder, which it demonstrated at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters Show in Chicago in April 1956.

images Video technology was made available to the general public in 1967 with Sony’s Portapack. Sony developed digital video technology in 1986.

images One of the many people to use video in art-making during the 1970s was the Korean-American artist Nam June Paik. Paik was involved in the Fluxus movement, which was interested in blurring the line between art and life.

images Mariko Mori was born in Tokyo in 1967. She currently lives and works in New York City.

images In the video Miko no Inori (Shaman-Girl’s Prayer), the artist stands in the Kansai International Airport in Osaka, Japan. She wears an elaborate, futuristic costume and rolls a crystal ball in her hands. The soundtrack is a Japanese song, performed by the artist.

Conclusion

This guide has offered a brief overview of the ways in which innovation has been expressed in art over time. We have examined a wide variety of artworks from throughout the world and have seen many ways in which technology has spurred artistic invention and thinking. In addition to the new materials and processes that artists have used to make works, we have seen the ways in which artists have themselves innovated—from Brunelleschi’s development of the machinery necessary to dome the Florence Cathedral to Jackson Pollock’s invention of the “drip” technique for applying paint to a canvas.

It should be no surprise to us that human innovation has affected art. Indeed, when we look at the history of human innovation, we can easily map that narrative onto the art that was produced in its wake. Art historians understand that this is because art is always a product of its time and place. The job of the art historian is to study works of art in their historical contexts in order to better understand both the artworks and history itself. In the examples provided here, we have been able to do just that, by studying major innovations and seeing their manifestation in creative expression.

While this guide has provided a brief introduction to the topic of innovation as it relates to art, many important and interesting items have necessarily been omitted. Additional examples of both innovations and artworks are available for further study. The list of suggested readings in the bibliography can assist you in identifying additional resources and furthering your own independent learning on these topics.

Timeline of Major Events

c. 3150–
1000 BCE

Ancient Egyptian culture thrives: the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150–2575 BCE), the Old Kingdom (c. 2575–2134 BCE), the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1640 BCE) and the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE).

16th–11th centuries BCE

The Valley of the Kings serves as the main royal burial ground for Egyptian pharaohs.

c. 2000 BCE

The Bronze Age in Greece

c. 1323 BCE

The pharaoh Tutankhamun dies and is entombed in a rich burial, which includes an innermost coffin of gold.

c. 900–30 BCE

Ancient Greek art flourishes through various phases: the Geometric and Orientalizing (c. 900–660 BCE), Archaic (c. 660–475 BCE), Early and High Classical (c. 475–400 BCE), Late Classical (c. 400–323 BCE), and Hellenistic (c. 323–30 BCE).

c. 460 BCE

The Poseidon/Zeus figurative sculpture is created.

221 BCE–1911/12 CE

The age of Imperial China: early imperial age of the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) through the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), and the later imperial age from the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) through the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12 CE)

2nd CEntury BCE

The Silk Road opens during the reign of Han Emperor Wu.

1st CEntury CE

The Pont-du-Gard and an aqueduct system for Nîmes are constructed.

80 CE

Marcus Agrippa’s original Pantheon temple is burnt.

c. 126 CE

The Pantheon is completed in Rome.

250 CE

Date for the earliest existing fragments of paper discovered in China.

c. 375–1400

The Middle Ages

c. 400

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Roman recipe for concrete is lost.

7th century

Paper first begins to appear in Korea and Japan.

8th century

Muslim Arab armies from the Near East conquer Central Asia.

11th century

Paper is first produced in Europe.

c. 1000

Printing with stencils is first developed in ancient China and Japan.

1296

The foundations for Maria del Fiore, the new cathedral in Florence, are laid.

1377

Filippo Brunelleschi is born.

c. 14th–16th centuries

The Renaissance flowers in Europe, transforming ideas about art and the artist, and ushering in a revolution in science and technology.

c. 1395

Jan van Eyck is born.

1401

A competition is held to sculpt the doors of the Florence Baptistery.

c. 1420

Brunelleschi creates a visual demonstration of the concept of linear perspective.

1420–36

Brunelleschi domes the Florence Cathedral.

1426

Hubert van Eyck dies, leaving the completion of the Ghent Altarpiece to his brother Jan.

1432

The Ghent Altarpiece is completed.

1436

Leon Battista Alberti’s On Painting is published.

c. 1440

Johannes Gutenberg develops the printing press.

1441

Jan van Eyck dies.

1446

Brunelleschi dies.

1450s

The Gutenberg Bible is published.

1452

Leonardo da Vinci is born.

1453

Constantinople falls to the Muslim Turks.

1483

Raphael is born.

c. 1500

The Decorated pages intended for a Koran are created.

1503–13

Pope Julius II rules the Church in Rome.

c. 1503

Leonardo envisions the Ornithopter Wings in one of his notebooks.

1505

Leonardo writes his manuscript On the Flight of Birds.

c. 1508–11

Raphael paints The School of Athens.

1517

Martin Luther nails his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Catholic church in Wittenberg, Germany.

1519

Leonardo dies.

1520

Raphael dies.

1538

The first published Koran is printed by Paganino de’ Paganini in Venice.

1545–63

The Council of Trent

1550

Giorgio Vasari writes his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects.

18th century

The Emperor’s Twelve-Symbol Robe is completed during the Qing Dynasty in China.

1709

Abraham Darby develops a process for smelting iron using coke instead of charcoal, creating a boom in iron production in England.

1723

Thomas Farnolls Pritchard is born.

1750

Abraham Darby III is born.

1751–72

Denis Diderot’s Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers is published.

c. 1760

The Industrial Revolution begins in England.

1765–82

Scottish engineer James Watt perfects the steam engine.

1781

The Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale is opened. (The bridge was raised in 1779.)

1793

Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin.

1815

Julia Margaret Pattle is born.

1826/27

Joseph Nicéphore Niépce produces a photograph that is the oldest surviving photograph today.

1839

Louis Daguerre publicly announces the daguerreotype process at the French Academy of Sciences.

1840

Claude Monet is born.

1841

American portrait painter John Rand develops the collapsible metal tube sealed with a screw-on lid for paint storage.

1849

Joseph Monier invents reinforced concrete.

1850

The albumen photography technique is invented by Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard.

1851

Joseph Paxton builds the Crystal Palace for London’s Great Exhibition.

1852

Elisha Otis develops the safety elevator.

1856

Louis Sullivan is born.

1860s

Haussmannization transforms Paris.

1864

The first steam-driven elevator is installed at the Charles B. Farwell Store in Chicago. Julia Margaret Cameron takes her first photograph.

1867

Julia Margaret Cameron creates Ophelia, Study No. 2.

1870s

Impressionism emerges in Paris.

1871

The Great Chicago Fire destroys much of the city.

1872

Claude Monet paints Impression, Sunrise.

1877

Monet paints a series of images of the Saint-Lazare train station.

1878

Julia Margaret Cameron dies.

1881

Pablo Picasso is born.

1883

William Le Baron Jenney develops the skeleton framework system for steel construction.

1889

The Eiffel Tower is erected in France.

1896

Louis Sullivan publishes The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered.

1899–1904

The Carson, Pirie, Scott Building is completed.

1906/07

Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque develop Cubism.

1908

Henry Ford introduces the Model T.

1911

The first major Cubist exhibition is held at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris.

1912

Jackson Pollock is born. Picasso and Braque begin to experiment with the introduction of everyday materials and objects into their work. Braque invents papier collé with his Fruit Dish and Glass. Picasso creates Still Life with Chair Caning.

1914–18

World War I

1922

The tomb of King Tutankhamun is discovered.

1924

Louis Sullivan dies.

1926

Claude Monet dies.

1928

Andy Warhol is born. An archeological expedition recovers the Greek bronze Poseidon/Zeus sculpture from the sea.

1930s

Silkscreen is used as a fine art medium.

1934

The ability to capture sound on magnetic tape is achieved in Germany.

1939–45

World War II

1940s

Abstract Expressionism emerges as the first modern art movement originating in the United States.

1950

Jackson Pollock paints Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist).

1950–53

The Korean War

1956

The first commercially viable videotape recorder is developed by Ampex. Jackson Pollock dies.

1957–75

The Vietnam War

1960s

The avant-garde Fluxus movement is active. Pop art is recognized as a major art movement.

1962

Andy Warhol creates his first silkscreen works, including Marilyn Diptych.

1967

Mariko Mori is born. Sony’s Portapack becomes available to the general public. The Rockefeller Foundation establishes Artist in Residence Programs at television stations in New York, Boston, and San Francisco.

1970s

Video is established as a vibrant artistic medium.

1970

Nam June Paik creates his video synthesizer. The Carson, Pirie, Scott Building is designated a Chicago Landmark.

1973

Pablo Picasso dies.

1986

Sony introduces digital video technology.

1987

Andy Warhol dies.

1990–91

The Gulf War

1996

Mariko Mori creates her video work Miko no Inori.

Notes

1.   These are some commonly accepted spellings for Akhenaton’s names, though variations are possible. Written ancient Egyptian script did not include vowels, which is why we often find various spellings for the names of pharaohs. Later translators inserted vowels into these names, and there is often disagreement regarding which vowels should be used.

2.   Stephen Edwards, Treasures of Tutankhamun (New York: Ballantine Books, 1976) 13.

3.   Carol Mattusch, Greek Bronze Statuary: From the Beginnings Through the Fifth Century B. C. (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1988) 2.

4.   Mattusch, Greek Bronze Statuary, 152.

5.   Though it is generally not possible to see in reproduction, the palm has a shallow channel cut into it, which would have held the weapon securely.

6.   The oculus also allows rain to enter the temple. In order to accommodate this, the floor slopes gently toward a central drain in the floor.

7.   Dhanens, Elisabeth Dhanens, Van Eyck: The Ghent Altarpiece (New York: The Viking Press, 1973) 26–27.

8.   James McClellan III and Harold Dorn, Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006) 203–247.

9.   Kenneth Keele, Leonardo da Vinci’s Elements of the Science of Man (New York and London: Academic Press, Inc., 1983) 17.

10.  Ibid, 2.

11.  Ivor Hart, The World of Leonardo da Vinci: Man of Science, Engineer and Dreamer of Flight (London: Macdonald & Company, 1961) 313.

12.  Ibid, 311.

13.  Ibid, 325.

14.  Or perhaps more accurately “rediscoverer,” as it is possible that the Greeks and Romans understood and utilized linear perspective in their art.

15.  Ross King, Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture (New York: Walker & Company, 2000) 1.

16.  Ibid, 53.

17.  Ibid, 61.

18.  Bo Rudin, Making Paper: A Look Into the History of an Ancient Craft (Vallingby, Sweden: Rudins, 1990) 15.

19.  Johathan Bloom, Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2001) 10.

20.  Robert Fulton would successfully send the first steamboat up the Hudson River in the United States in 1807.

21.  There are many species of wild silkworms found throughout the world. The most common type used in Chinese silk production is the Bombyx mori, which produces a smoother, finer, rounder filament than other moths. For this and other details of sericulture presented here see Verity Wilson, Chinese Dress (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1986), 93–97.

22.  Philippa Scott, The Book of Silk (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993), 22.

23.  The British Museum, “Explore/World Cultures: Imperial China.” <http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/cultures/asia/imperial_china.aspx>. Accessed September 21, 2013.

24.  The Metropolitan Museum of Art, “Emperor’s Twelve-Symbol Robe.” <http://metmuseum.org/collections/search-the-collections/60506>. Accessed September 20, 2013.

25.  For further discussion and sketches of the various symbols, see Julia Hutt, Understanding Far Eastern Art: A Complete Guide to the Arts of China, Japan and Korea—Ceramics, Sculpture, Painting, Prints, Lacquer, Textiles and Metalwork (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1987), 190–191.

26.  Verity Wilson, Chinese Dress (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1986), 27.

27.  Ibid, 98.

28.  Reprinted in Aaron Scharf, Art and Photography (London: Penguin Books, 1974), 153.

29.  Colin Ford, Julia Margaret Cameron: A Critical Biography (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2003), 35.

30.  Ibid, 83.

31.  The sitter for Ophelia has been variously identified over time. The identification provided here is given in Sylvia Wolf, Julia Margaret Cameron’s Women (New Haven: Yale Univeristy Press, 1998), 225. Wolf’s discussion identifies Pinnock as the sitter for other works by Cameron. Pinnock was possibly married to a local merchant or laborer.

32.  Reprinted in White, Barbara Ehrlich White, ed., Impressionism in Perspective (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1978), 5.

33.  Juliet Wilson-Bareau, Manet, Monet, and the Gare Saint-Lazare (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998), 105.

34.  Emile Zola, printed in Le Sémaphore de Marseille, 19 April 1877. Quoted in Ibid, 105–6.

35.  Monet gave these instructions to the American artist Lilla Cabot Perry in 1890. See John House, Impressionism: Paint and Politics (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), 148–19.

36.  For a discussion of the evolution of cast-iron to steel cage construction, see Carl Condit, The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875–1925 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1964).

37.  For more on the specifics of the Chicago fire, see Ibid, 18–19.

38.  Ibid, 18.

39.  Ibid, 19.

40.  See Ada Louise Huxtable, The Tall Building Artistically Reconsidered: The Search for a Skyscraper Style (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984) for more information on these phases.

41.  Ibid, 14.

42.  Information on Sullivan’s biography is taken from Condit, The Chicago School of Architecture, 35.

43.  Information on the Carson, Pirie, Scott Building is taken from Ibid, 162–166.

44.  Brandon Taylor, Collage: The Making of Modern Art (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2004), 11.

45.  Ibid, 19.

46.  Ibid, 15–16.

47.  Information on Pollock’s biography is taken from the “Chronology,” in Kirk Varnedoe with Pepe Karmel, Jackson Pollock (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1998), 315–328.

48.  Varnedoe, Jackson Pollock, 48.

49.  Quoted in Francis V. O’Connor, Jackson Pollock (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1967), 39–40.

50.  This quotation was originally printed in an essay Rosenberg wrote for ARTnews in December of 1952, entitled “The American Action Painters.” It was republished in his book, The Tradition of the New (New York: Horizon Press, 1959), 25.

51.  Information on Warhol’s life is taken from the “Chronology,” in Kynaston McShine, ed., Andy Warhol: A Retrospective (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1989), 401–420.

52.  This general description of the silkscreen process is taken from Clifford Cheiffo, Silk-Screen as a Fine Art: A Handbook of Contemporary Silk-Screen Printing (New York, Amsterdam and London: Rienhold Publishing Corporation, 1967), 15, 34–67.

53.  Photo silkscreen information comes from Cheiffo, Silk-Screen as a Fine Art, 69–82.

54.  Information on the history of video technology is taken from Eugene Marlow and Eugene Secunda, Shifting Time and Space: The Story of Videotape (New York, Westport, Connecticut and London: Praeger, 1991).

55.  Lizzie Borden, “Directions in Video Art,” From Institute for Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Video Art (Philadelphia: Institute for Contemporary Art, 1975), 75.

56.  Ibid.

57.  The Art Institute of Chicago, “Miko No Inori.” <http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/184189>. Accessed October 20, 2013.

58.  Sean Kelly Gallery, “Mariko Mori.” <http://www.skny.com/artists/mariko-mori/>. Accessed October 21, 2013.

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